The Establishment of a Permanent International Criminal Court: Challenges Ahead

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 413-428

  Nanda, Ved P ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0343767392     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.1998.0016     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. The General Assembly adopted the resolution by consensus, confirming that the diplomatic conference will be held in Rome from 15 June through 17 July 1998. The General Assembly had accepted the draft resolution proposed by the Chairman of the Sixth Committee on the establishment of an international criminal court. Establishment of an International Criminal Court, U.N. GAOR, 52d Sess., Agenda Item 150, U.N. Doc. A/C.6/52/L.16 (1997) (draft resolution).
2. For the various initiatives, see generally Vespasian V. Pella, Towards an International Criminal Court, 44 AM. J. INT'L L. 37 (1950); TOWARD A FEASIBLE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (Julius Stone & Robert K. Woetzel eds., 1970); BENJAMIN FERENCZ, AN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, Vols. 1 & 2 (1980).
3. For the various initiatives, see generally Vespasian V. Pella, Towards an International Criminal Court, 44 AM. J. INT'L L. 37 (1950); TOWARD A FEASIBLE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (Julius Stone & Robert K. Woetzel eds., 1970); BENJAMIN FERENCZ, AN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, Vols. 1 & 2 (1980).
4. For the various initiatives, see generally Vespasian V. Pella, Towards an International Criminal Court, 44 AM. J. INT'L L. 37 (1950); TOWARD A FEASIBLE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (Julius Stone & Robert K. Woetzel eds., 1970); BENJAMIN FERENCZ, AN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, Vols. 1 & 2 (1980).
5. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted 9 Dec. 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 (entered into force 12 Jan. 1951) (entered into force for U.S. 23 Feb. 1989) [hereinafter Genocide Convention] (providing that an international criminal court, should it be established, is to have jurisdiction over the crime of genocide).
6. Report of the International Law Commission on Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/15 (1950).
7. Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/ 20 (1950). See also Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., Supp No 12 U.N. Docs. A/1316, A/1639 (1950) (discussions on the rapporteurs' reports by the Sixth Committee (legal committee) of the General Assembly), reprinted in 2 FERENCZ, supra note 2, at 265-311.
8. Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/ 20 (1950). See also Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., Supp No 12 U.N. Docs. A/1316, A/1639 (1950) (discussions on the rapporteurs' reports by the Sixth Committee (legal committee) of the General Assembly), reprinted in 2 FERENCZ, supra note 2, at 265-311.
9. Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 7th Sess., Supp. No. 11 at 21, U.N. Doc. A/2136 (1952). See also International Criminal Jurisdiction: Comments Received from Governments Regarding the Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 7th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/ 2186/Add. 1 (1952).
10. Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 7th Sess., Supp. No. 11 at 21, U.N. Doc. A/2136 (1952). See also International Criminal Jurisdiction: Comments Received from Governments Regarding the Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 7th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/ 2186/Add. 1 (1952).
11. See Report of the Sixth Committee, U.N. GAOR, 7th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/2275 (1952). Discussions by the Sixth Committee on this report are reprinted in FERENCZ, supra note 2, at 424-28.
12. See Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. GAOR, 9th Sess., Supp. No. 12, at 21, U.N. Doc. A/2645 (1954).
13. See TOWARD A FEASIBLE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, supra note 2 (overviewing an earlier study, including proposals, regarding the establishment of an international criminal court).
14. International Criminal Jurisdiction, adopted 14 Dec. 1954, G.A. Res. 898 (IX), U.N. GAOR, 9th Sess., Supp. No. 21, at 50, U.N. Doc. A/2890 (1954).
15. Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, adopted 9 Dec. 1988, G.A. Res. 43/164, U.N. GAOR, 43rd Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 280, U.N. Doc. A/43/49 (1988); International Criminal Responsibility of Individuals and Entities Engaged in Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs Across National Frontiers and Other Transnational Criminal Activities: Establishment of an International Criminal Court with Jurisdiction over Such Crimes, adopted 4 Dec. 1989, G.A. Res. 44/39, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 311, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989).
16. Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, adopted 9 Dec. 1988, G.A. Res. 43/164, U.N. GAOR, 43rd Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 280, U.N. Doc. A/43/49 (1988); International Criminal Responsibility of Individuals and Entities Engaged in Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs Across National Frontiers and Other Transnational Criminal Activities: Establishment of an International Criminal Court with Jurisdiction over Such Crimes, adopted 4 Dec. 1989, G.A. Res. 44/39, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 311, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989).
17. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Fourth Session, adopted 1 Sept. 1992, U.N. GAOR, 47th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/47/10 (1992).
18. See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Fifth Session, adopted 30 July 1993, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., Supp. No. 10, at 258-334, U.N. Doc. A/ 48/10 (1993).
19. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Sixth Session, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/49/10 (1994). See generally M. Cherif Bassiouni, Establishing an International Criminal Court: Historical Survey, 149 MIL. L. REV. 49 (1995); James Crawford, The ILC Adopts a Statute for an International Criminal Court, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 404 (1995).
20. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Sixth Session, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/49/10 (1994). See generally M. Cherif Bassiouni, Establishing an International Criminal Court: Historical Survey, 149 MIL. L. REV. 49 (1995); James Crawford, The ILC Adopts a Statute for an International Criminal Court, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 404 (1995).
21. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Sixth Session, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/49/10 (1994). See generally M. Cherif Bassiouni, Establishing an International Criminal Court: Historical Survey, 149 MIL. L. REV. 49 (1995); James Crawford, The ILC Adopts a Statute for an International Criminal Court, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 404 (1995).
22. See generally VIRGINIA MORRIS & MICHAEL SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 11, 41-49 (1997); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & PETER MANIKAS, THE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1996); Payam Akhavan, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 501 (1996); Larry Johnson, The International Tribunal for Rwanda, 67 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PENAL 211 (1996).
23. See generally VIRGINIA MORRIS & MICHAEL SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 11, 41-49 (1997); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & PETER MANIKAS, THE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1996); Payam Akhavan, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 501 (1996); Larry Johnson, The International Tribunal for Rwanda, 67 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PENAL 211 (1996).
24. See generally VIRGINIA MORRIS & MICHAEL SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 11, 41-49 (1997); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & PETER MANIKAS, THE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1996); Payam Akhavan, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 501 (1996); Larry Johnson, The International Tribunal for Rwanda, 67 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PENAL 211 (1996).
25. See generally VIRGINIA MORRIS & MICHAEL SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 11, 41-49 (1997); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & PETER MANIKAS, THE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1996); Payam Akhavan, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 501 (1996); Larry Johnson, The International Tribunal for Rwanda, 67 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PENAL 211 (1996).
26. See generally VIRGINIA MORRIS & MICHAEL SCHARF, AN INSIDER'S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995); M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 11, 41-49 (1997); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & PETER MANIKAS, THE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1996); Payam Akhavan, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 501 (1996); Larry Johnson, The International Tribunal for Rwanda, 67 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PENAL 211 (1996).
27. See Establishment of an International Criminal Court, adopted 9 Dec. 1994, G.A. Res. 49/53, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Supp. No. 49, U.N. Doc. A/49/49 (1994).
28. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, adopted 6 Sept. 1995, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 22, U.N. Doc. A/50/22 (1995).
29. Establishment of an International Criminal Court, adopted 11 Dec. 1995, G.A. Res. 50/ 46, U.N. GAOR, 50th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 307, U.N. Doc. A/50/49 (1995).
30. Id. See generally Virginia Morris & M. Christiane Bourloyannis-Vrailas, The Work of the Sixth Committee at the Fiftieth Session of the UN General Assembly, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 491 (1996).
31. See Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee during March-April and August 1996), adopted 13 Sept. 1996, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 22, U.N. Doc. A/51/22, Vol. I (1996); Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Compilation of Proposals), adopted 13 Sept. 1996, U.N. GAOR 51st Sess., Supp. No. 22A, U.N. Doc. A/51/22, Vol. II (1996). The PrepCom's officers consisted of the following: Chairman Adriaan Bos (Netherlands); Vice Chairmen M. Cherif Bassiouni (Egypt), Silvia Fernandez de Gurmendi (Argentina), and Marek Madej (Poland); and Rapporteur Masataka Okano (Japan).
32. See Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee during March-April and August 1996), adopted 13 Sept. 1996, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 22, U.N. Doc. A/51/22, Vol. I (1996); Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Compilation of Proposals), adopted 13 Sept. 1996, U.N. GAOR 51st Sess., Supp. No. 22A, U.N. Doc. A/51/22, Vol. II (1996). The PrepCom's officers consisted of the following: Chairman Adriaan Bos (Netherlands); Vice Chairmen M. Cherif Bassiouni (Egypt), Silvia Fernandez de Gurmendi (Argentina), and Marek Madej (Poland); and Rapporteur Masataka Okano (Japan).
33. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
34. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
35. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
36. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
37. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
38. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
39. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
40. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
41. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
42. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
43. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
44. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
45. The discussion of these issues will be based upon UN documents primarily from the reports of the Ad Hoc Committee and the Preparatory Committee. See, e.g., Report of the Ad Hoc Committee, supra note 17; Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Vols. I & II), supra note 20; Summary of the Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee During the Period 25 March-12 April 1996, adopted 7 May 1996, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1 (1996); Provisional Agenda, U.N. Doc. A/AC 249/1997/L.1 (1997); Draft Set of Rules of Procedure and Evidence for the International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Definition of Crimes, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.2 (1997); Report of the Working Group on General Principles of Criminal Law and Penalties, U.N. Doc. A/ AC 249/1997/L.3 (1997); Recommendation by the Preparatory Committee to the General Assembly in Connection with the Invitation by the Government of Italy to Host the Diplomatic Conference, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.4 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 11 to 21 February 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.5 (1997); U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.6 (1997); Report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.7 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/L.8 (1997); Decision Taken by the Preparatory Committee at Its Session Held From 4 to 15 August 1997, U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.8/Rev.1 (1997); U.N Doc. A/AC.249/1997/L.9 (1997); several documents as summary reports of the sessions by the NGO Coalition for an International Criminal Court; AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICES Vols. 1 & 2 (1997).
46. Genocide Convention, supra note 3.
47. Final Judgment of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, 1 INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL, TRIAL OF MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS 171 (1947), reprinted in part in BURNS H. WESTON ET AL., BASIC DOCUMENTS TO INTERNATIONAL LAW AND WORLD ORDER 1216 (3d ed. 1997).
48. Final Judgment of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, 1 INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL, TRIAL OF MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS 171 (1947), reprinted in part in BURNS H. WESTON ET AL., BASIC DOCUMENTS TO INTERNATIONAL LAW AND WORLD ORDER 1216 (3d ed. 1997).
49. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Geneva I), adopted 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3114, T.I.A.S. No. 3362 75 U.N.T.S. 31, (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956); Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Geneva II), opened for signature 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3217, T.I.A.S. No. 3363, 75 U.N.T.S. 85 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956); Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Geneva III), adopted 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, T.I.A.S. No 3364 75 U.N.T.S. 135 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb 1956); Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva IV), adopted 12 Aug. 1948, 6 U.S.T. 351 6, T.I.AS. No. 3365, 75 U.N.T.S. 287 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956) [hereinafter Geneva Conventions].
50. Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Forty-Sixth Session, Draft Statute of an International Criminal Court, 2 May - 22 July 1994, art. 20(c), Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc A/49/10 [hereinafter ILC Draft Statute]. This section reads, "serious violations of the laws and customs applicable to armed conflict . . . ." For discussions, see U.N. Doc. A/51/22, vol. 1, at 20-21 (1996) [hereinafter U.N. Doc. A/51/22].
51. See e.g., Geneva Conventions, supra note 24, art. 3.
52. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, art. 20(c). In October 1995, the Appellate Chamber of the Yugoslav War Crimes Tribunal rejected the defendant Tadić's challenge to the Tribunal's jurisdiction on the ground that the conflict was civil and not international, noting that there had been a general blurring of the distinction between the customary international rules governing international conflicts and those governing internal or non-international conflicts. The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić Case No. IT-94-I-5 (Trial Chamber, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72) (2 Oct. 1995) (Appeals Chamber), reprinted in 7 CRIM. L. FORUM 51 (1996). For the latest version of the proposed article, see U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/WG1/CRP.8-9, § D (1997).
53. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, art. 20(c). In October 1995, the Appellate Chamber of the Yugoslav War Crimes Tribunal rejected the defendant Tadić's challenge to the Tribunal's jurisdiction on the ground that the conflict was civil and not international, noting that there had been a general blurring of the distinction between the customary international rules governing international conflicts and those governing internal or non- international conflicts. The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadić Case No. IT-94-I-5 (Trial Chamber, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72) (2 Oct. 1995) (Appeals Chamber), reprinted in 7 CRIM. L. FORUM 51 (1996). For the latest version of the proposed article, see U.N. Doc. A/ AC.249/1997/WG1/CRP.8-9, § D (1997).
54. Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind: Titles and Texts of Articles on the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security ot Mankind, adopted by the International Law Commission at its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/L.532 (1996).
55. The reasons stated for US opposition were that "the Draft Statute could undermine the extensive investigative work undertaken in national prosecutions, [and that] the Court might actually undermine the investigation, protection against, or prosecution of crimes of international terrorism." Statement of the Legal Advisor (the Hon. Conrad K. Harper), U.S. Dep't of State, USUN Press Rel. No. 149-94, at 11-12 (25 Oct. 1994).
56. U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/WG.1/CRP.9 (1997). That option was proposed by Canada. For discussion, see William R. Pace, Initial Summary Reports on December 1-12 Meetings of the United Nations Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Definitions and Elements of Crimes, Working Group 1 Summary (NGO Coalition for an ICC, 18 Dec. 1997) (on file with author).
57. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, pmbl. ¶ 3.
58. Id. art. 35. See U.N. Doc. A/51/22, supra note 25, at 39 (providing a discussion).
59. While the term "establish a case" is used in the Statute, there was no discussion as to exactly what this requires. U.N. Doc. A/AC.249/1997/WG.3/CRP.2 (1997).
60. Id.
61. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, art. 23(2). For a discussion, see U.N. Doc. A/51/22, supra note 25, at 32-33.
62. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, art. 23(3). For a discussion, see U.N. Doc. A/51/22, supra note 25, at 33-34.
63. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, art. 21(1)(b). For a discussion, see U.N. Doc. A/51/22, supra note 25, at 29-30.
64. The reason is that many states, including the United States (during the time it had accepted such jurisdiction, that is, during the period prior to the Nicaragua v. United States decision), have made too many reservations, including the "domestic jurisdiction" clause, in accepting ICJ jurisdiction.
65. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, arts. 21-22. For a discussion, see U.N. Doc. A/51/22, supra note 25, at 28. Inherent jurisdiction exists without the need for state consent or preconditions for the Court to exercise jurisdiction. Consequently, the Draft Statute provides for the Court's inherent jurisdiction only for genocide.
66. Justice Louise Arbour, Speech to the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court 5 (8 Dec. 1997) (on file with author).
67. Id. at 6.
68. Id. at 7-8.
69. ILC Draft Statute, supra note 25, arts. 53 (apprehension and surrender); 51 (obligation of states to provide assistance); 58 (recognition of judgments); 59 (enforcement of sentences).
70. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3rd Sess., (Resolutions, part 1), at 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949).