Between Fear and Disappointment: Critical, Empirical and Political Uses of Habermas

Political Studies

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 100-117

  Blaug, Ricardo ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0343741321     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00074     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. On the vicissitudes of this element, see M. Jay, The Dialectical Imagination (Boston, Little Brown, 1973) and D. Kellner, Critical Theory, Marxism and Modernity (Cambridge, Polity, 1989).
2. On the vicissitudes of this element, see M. Jay, The Dialectical Imagination (Boston, Little Brown, 1973) and D. Kellner, Critical Theory, Marxism and Modernity (Cambridge, Polity, 1989).
3. Habermas's theory asserts that there are two kinds of rationality used to co-ordinate human activity. Instrumental rationality involves the strategic employment of means towards a pre-chosen end. It is oriented towards efficiency, towards success, and can be formalized in the language of game theory. Communicative rationality pertains instead to the generation and exchange of meaning. It is oriented towards mutual understanding, and can be formalized as a series of inescapable validity-claims. See J. Habermas, What is Universal Pragmatics?' in Communication and the Evolution of Society (hereafter CES), (Cambridge, Polity, 1991), pp. 1-68.
4. J. Ruane and J. Todd, 'The application of critical theory', Political Studies, 36 (1988), 533-8.
5. P. Strydom, 'Metacritical observations on a reductive approach to critical theory: Ruane and Todd's "The application of critical theory"', Political Studies, 38 (1990), 534-42.
6. This formulation simplifies, hopefully without reducing the sense of, that advanced in Strydom, 'Metacritical observations', Fig. 1, p. 541.
7. Strydom, 'Metacritical observations', p. 542.
8. Strydom, 'Metacritical observations', p. 542.
9. S. K. White, The Recent Work of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988), ch. 5.
10. 'Introducuon', R. J. Bernstein (ed.), Habermas and Modernity (Cambridge Polity, 1985) P 23.
11. J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2 (hereafter TCA2), (Cambridge, Polity, 1989), pp. 356-73.
12. TCA2, p. 355.
13. J. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Cambridge, Polity, 1988); D. Held, 'Crisis Tendencies, Legitimation and the State' in J. B. Thompson and D. Held (eds), Habermas: Critical Debates (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982), pp. 181-95.
14. J. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis (Cambridge, Polity, 1988); D. Held, 'Crisis Tendencies, Legitimation and the State' in J. B. Thompson and D. Held (eds), Habermas: Critical Debates (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982), pp. 181-95.
15. J. Habermas, Theory and Practice; T. A. McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982), pp.181-95.
16. J. Habermas, Theory and Practice; T. A. McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1982), pp.181-95.
17. J. Habermas, 'Moral Development and Ego Identity', in CES, pp. 69-94; J. Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (hereafter MCCA), (Cambridge Polity 1990), pp. 116- 95; J. Habermas, 'Justice and Solidarity: on the Discuss,on Concerning "Stage 6"' in M. Kelly, (ed.), Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1990), pp. 32-52; White, Recent Work, pp. 58-68.
18. J. Habermas, 'Moral Development and Ego Identity', in CES, pp. 69-94; J. Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (hereafter MCCA), (Cambridge Polity 1990), pp. 116-95; J. Habermas, 'Justice and Solidarity: on the Discuss,on Concerning "Stage 6"' in M. Kelly, (ed.), Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1990), pp. 32-52; White, Recent Work, pp. 58-68.
19. J. Habermas, 'Moral Development and Ego Identity', in CES, pp. 69-94; J. Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (hereafter MCCA), (Cambridge Polity 1990), pp. 116- 95; J. Habermas, 'Justice and Solidarity: on the Discuss,on Concerning "Stage 6"' in M. Kelly, (ed.), Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1990), pp. 32-52; White, Recent Work, pp. 58-68.
20. J. Habermas, 'Moral Development and Ego Identity', in CES, pp. 69-94; J. Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (hereafter MCCA), (Cambridge Polity 1990), pp. 116- 95; J. Habermas, 'Justice and Solidarity: on the Discuss,on Concerning "Stage 6"' in M. Kelly, (ed.), Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1990), pp. 32-52; White, Recent Work, pp. 58-68.
21. TCA2, chs 6 and 7; R. C. Holub, Jürgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London, Routledge, 1991), pp. 106-32.
22. TCA2, chs 6 and 7; R. C. Holub, Jürgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London, Routledge, 1991), pp. 106-32.
23. J. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (hereafter PDM), (Cambridge Polity, 1987); R. C. Holub, Jürgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London Routledge, 1991), pp 133-61; J. Habermas, 'Modernity versus postmodernity', New German Critique, 22 (1981), 3-14.
24. J. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (hereafter PDM), (Cambridge Polity, 1987); R. C. Holub, Jürgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London Routledge, 1991), pp 133-61; J. Habermas, 'Modernity versus postmodernity', New German Critique, 22 (1981), 3-14.
25. J. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (hereafter PDM), (Cambridge Polity, 1987); R. C. Holub, Jürgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London Routledge, 1991), pp 133-61; J. Habermas, 'Modernity versus postmodernity', New German Critique, 22 (1981), 3-14.
26. PDM, p. 357.
27. PDM, p. 357.
28. J. Habermas, 'New social movements', Telos, 49 (1981), 33-7; J. Cohen, 'Strategy or identity: new theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements', Social Research 52/4 (1985); C. Offe, 'New social movements: challenging the boundaries of institutional politics', Social Research 52/4 817-68; L. J. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory: Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements (London, Sage, 1993); K. H. Tucker, 'Ideology and social movements: the contributions of Habermas', Sociological Inquiry, 59/1 (1989), 30-47.
29. J. Habermas, 'New social movements', Telos, 49 (1981), 33-7; J. Cohen, 'Strategy or identity: new theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements', Social Research 52/4 (1985); C. Offe, 'New social movements: challenging the boundaries of institutional politics', Social Research 52/4 817-68; L. J. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory: Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements (London, Sage, 1993); K. H. Tucker, 'Ideology and social movements: the contributions of Habermas', Sociological Inquiry, 59/1 (1989), 30-47.
30. J. Habermas, 'New social movements', Telos, 49 (1981), 33-7; J. Cohen, 'Strategy or identity: new theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements', Social Research 52/4 (1985); C. Offe, 'New social movements: challenging the boundaries of institutional politics', Social Research 52/4 817-68; L. J. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory: Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements (London, Sage, 1993); K. H. Tucker, 'Ideology and social movements: the contributions of Habermas', Sociological Inquiry, 59/1 (1989), 30-47.
31. J. Habermas, 'New social movements', Telos, 49 (1981), 33-7; J. Cohen, 'Strategy or identity: new theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements', Social Research 52/4 (1985); C. Offe, 'New social movements: challenging the boundaries of institutional politics', Social Research 52/4 817-68; L. J. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory: Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements (London, Sage, 1993); K. H. Tucker, 'Ideology and social movements: the contributions of Habermas', Sociological Inquiry, 59/1 (1989), 30-47.
32. J. Habermas, 'New social movements', Telos, 49 (1981), 33-7; J. Cohen, 'Strategy or identity: new theoretical paradigms and contemporary social movements', Social Research 52/4 (1985); C. Offe, 'New social movements: challenging the boundaries of institutional politics', Social Research 52/4 817-68; L. J. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory: Emancipation in the Age of Global Social Movements (London, Sage, 1993); K. H. Tucker, 'Ideology and social movements: the contributions of Habermas', Sociological Inquiry, 59/1 (1989), 30-47.
33. J. Habermas, Towards a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science, and Politics (Boston, Beacon, 1971); Holub, Jürgen Habermas, pp. 78-105.
34. J. Habermas, Towards a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science, and Politics (Boston, Beacon, 1971); Holub, Jürgen Habermas, pp. 78-105.
35. TCA2, pp. 374-404.
36. TCA2, p. 361ff.
37. TCA2, pp. 358-61.
38. TCA2, pp. 378-82.
39. TCA2, p. 388; but see C. F. Alford, 'Habermas, post-Freudian psychoanalysis and the end of the individual', Theory, Culture and Society, 4 (1987), 3-29.
40. TCA2, p. 388; but see C. F. Alford, 'Habermas, post-Freudian psychoanalysis and the end of the individual', Theory, Culture and Society, 4 (1987), 3-29.
41. TCA2, pp. 363, 395.
42. TCA2, pp. 389-90; D. C. Hallin, 'The American News Media: a Critical Theory Perspective' in J. Forester (ed.), Critical Theory and Public Life (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1985, pp. 121-46, and 'Introduction' in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1992), pp. 1-50, p. 22.
43. TCA2, pp. 389-90; D. C. Hallin, 'The American News Media: a Critical Theory Perspective' in J. Forester (ed.), Critical Theory and Public Life (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1985, pp. 121-46, and 'Introduction' in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1992), pp. 1-50, p. 22.
44. TCA2, pp. 389-90; D. C. Hallin, 'The American News Media: a Critical Theory Perspective' in J. Forester (ed.), Critical Theory and Public Life (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1985, pp. 121-46, and 'Introduction' in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1992), pp. 1-50, p. 22.
45. TCA2, p. 393; see also J. S. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy: Politics, Policy, and Political Science (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990); White, Recent Work, pp. 136-44.
46. TCA2, p. 393; see also J. S. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy: Politics, Policy, and Political Science (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990); White, Recent Work, pp. 136-44.
47. TCA2, p. 393; see also J. S. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy: Politics, Policy, and Political Science (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990); White, Recent Work, pp. 136-44.
48. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, p. 122; J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states' European Journal of Philosophy, 1/2 (1993), 128-55; J. Habermas, 'Citizenship and national identity: some reflections on the future of Europe', Praxis International, 12/1 (1992), 1-19.
49. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, p. 122; J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states' European Journal of Philosophy, 1/2 (1993), 128-55; J. Habermas, 'Citizenship and national identity: some reflections on the future of Europe', Praxis International, 12/1 (1992), 1-19.
50. Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, p. 122; J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states' European Journal of Philosophy, 1/2 (1993), 128-55; J. Habermas, 'Citizenship and national identity: some reflections on the future of Europe', Praxis International, 12/1 (1992), 1-19.
51. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy (Cambridge, Polity, 1996); R. Shelly, 'Habermas and the normative foundations of a radical polities', Thesis Eleven, 35 (1993), 62-83; W. Outhwaite, Habermas: a Critical Introduction (Cambridge, Polity, 1994), pp. 137-51.
52. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy (Cambridge, Polity, 1996); R. Shelly, 'Habermas and the normative foundations of a radical polities', Thesis Eleven, 35 (1993), 62-83; W. Outhwaite, Habermas: a Critical Introduction (Cambridge, Polity, 1994), pp. 137-51.
53. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy (Cambridge, Polity, 1996); R. Shelly, 'Habermas and the normative foundations of a radical polities', Thesis Eleven, 35 (1993), 62-83; W. Outhwaite, Habermas: a Critical Introduction (Cambridge, Polity, 1994), pp. 137-51.
54. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy; J. Forester, 'Towards a critical-empirical framework for the analysis of public policy', New Political Science, Summer (1982), 33-61.
55. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy; J. Forester, 'Towards a critical-empirical framework for the analysis of public policy', New Political Science, Summer (1982), 33-61.
56. S. D. Ealy, Communication, Speech, and Politics: Habermas and Political Analysis (Washington, University Press of America, 1981).
57. J. D. Wisman, 'The Scope and Goals of Economic Science: A Habermasian Perspective' in D. Lavoie (ed.), Economics and Hermeneutics (London, Routledge, 1991), pp. 113-33.
58. C. Anderson and L. Rouse, 'Intervention in cases of women battering: an application of symbolic interactionism and critical theory', Clinical Sociology Review, 6 (1988), 134-47.
59. For an analysis of interactions between doctor and patient, see E. Mishler, The Discourse of Medicine: Dialectics of Medical Interviews (Norwood, Ablex, 1984).
60. G. Scambler, 'Habermas and the power of medical expertise' in G. Scambler (ed.), Sociological Theory and Medical Sociology (London, Tavistock, 1987), pp. 165-93.
61. P. Rodwell, Habermas and the Evaluation of Public Policy (Ph.D. Dissertation, Manchester University, unpublished, 1990).
62. R. Blaug, 'The distortion of the face to face: communicative reason and social work practice', British Journal of Social Work, 25/4 (1995), 423-39.
63. T. W. Luke and S. K. White, 'Critical Theory, the Informational Revolution, and an Ecological Path to Modernity' in Forester, Critical Theory and Public Life, pp. 22-56.
64. D. Misgeld, 'Education and Cultural Invasion: Critical Social Theory, Education as Instruction, and the "Pedagogy of the Oppressed"' in Forester, Critical Theory and Public Life, 77-118.
65. Ruane and Todd, 'The application of critical theory', p. 536.
66. Ruane and Todd, 'The application of critical theory', p. 535.
67. D. Kellner, Critical Theory, Marxism, and Modernity (Baltimore MD, John Hopkins University Press, 1989), p. 232.
68. Forester, 'Introduction: The Applied Turn in Contemporary Critical Theory in Critical Theory and Public Life, p. xviii.
69. Ruane and Todd, 'The application of critical theory', p. 535.
70. Parkin, Rethinking the Subject, ch. 6, pp. 13, 44.
71. V A. Malhotra, 'Habermas' sociological theory as a basis for clinical practice with small groups', Clinical Sociology Review, 5 (1987), 181-92; V. A. Malhotra, 'Research as critical reflection: a study of self, time and communicative competency', Humanity and Society, 8 (1984), 468-77.
72. V A. Malhotra, 'Habermas' sociological theory as a basis for clinical practice with small groups', Clinical Sociology Review, 5 (1987), 181-92; V. A. Malhotra, 'Research as critical reflection: a study of self, time and communicative competency', Humanity and Society, 8 (1984), 468-77.
73. J. Forester, 'Critical Theory and Planning Practice' in Critical Theory and Public Life, 202-30.
74. R. E. Young, 'Critical theory and classroom questioning', Language and Education, 1/2 (1987);
75. R. E. Young 'Moral development, ego autonomy, and questions of practicality in the critical theory of schooling', Educational Theory, 38/4 (1988), 391-404; R. E. Young, A Critical Theory of Education: Habermas and Our Children's Future (New York, Wheatsheaf, 1989).
76. R. E. Young 'Moral development, ego autonomy, and questions of practicality in the critical theory of schooling', Educational Theory, 38/4 (1988), 391-404; R. E. Young, A Critical Theory of Education: Habermas and Our Children's Future (New York, Wheatsheaf, 1989).
77. Parkin, Rethinking the Subject, p. 41. This critique is also levelled at the more interpretative work of Anderson and Rouse (see above). Parkin is particularly troubled by their lack of analysis of the underlying causes of spousal violence, p. 33.
78. A. J. Carroll, Ethics, Critical Theory, and the Inner City (Ph.D. Dissertation, Manchester University, unpublished, 1993).
79. Malhotra, 'Research as critical reflection', pp. 468, 470, 475.
80. Malhotra, 'Habermas' sociological theory', p. 186.
81. Malhotra, 'Research as critical reflection', p. 469.
82. Parkin, Rethinking the Subject, pp. 35-40.
83. I. Mitroff and L. V. Blankenship, 'On the methodology of the holistic experiment', Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 4 (1973), 339-53; Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 39.
84. I. Mitroff and L. V. Blankenship, 'On the methodology of the holistic experiment', Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 4 (1973), 339-53; Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 39.
85. Carroll's study, Ethics, Critical Theory, and the Inner City, relying as it does on questionnaires, does not attempt to practice this methodology.
86. Parkin, Rethinking the Subject, p. 51.
87. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 177.
88. See S. R. Brown, Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q Methodology in Political Science (New Haven CT, Yale University Press, 1980); B. McKeown and D. Thomas, Q Methodology (Newbury Park, Sage, 1988); Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, pp. 174-88.
89. See S. R. Brown, Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q Methodology in Political Science (New Haven CT, Yale University Press, 1980); B. McKeown and D. Thomas, Q Methodology (Newbury Park, Sage, 1988); Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, pp. 174-88.
90. See S. R. Brown, Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q Methodology in Political Science (New Haven CT, Yale University Press, 1980); B. McKeown and D. Thomas, Q Methodology (Newbury Park, Sage, 1988); Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, pp. 174-88.
91. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 176.
92. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 178.
93. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 180.
94. See for example C Kitzinger, 'Introduction and Developing Q as a Feminist Methodology: a Study of Accounts of Lesbianism', in S. Wilkinson (ed.), Feminist Social Psychology: Developing Theory and Practice (Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1986), pp. 151-72.
95. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 188.
96. J. S. Dryzek and J. Berejikian, 'Reconstructive democratic theory', American Political Science Review, 87/1 (1993), 48-60.
97. MCCA, p. 179.
98. S. K. White, 'Reason and authority in Habermas: a critique of the critics', American Political Science Review, 74 (1980), 1007-17.
99. R. Howard, 'A politics in search of the political', Theory and Society, 1 (1974), 271-306.
100. Originally called an 'Ideal Speech Situation', and later, 'the inescapable presuppositions of argumentation'.
101. MCCA, p. 89.
102. A Ferrara, 'Justice and identity', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 18/3 (1992), 333-54. McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas, p. 309.
103. A Ferrara, 'Justice and identity', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 18/3 (1992), 333-54. McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas, p. 309.
104. Forester, 'Introduction' in Critical Theory and Public Life, p. xvi. It is precisely the inability to distinguish between degrees of imperfection that eludes those postmodern democrats who reject such ideals, see R. Blaug, 'New theories of discursive democracy: a user's guide', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 22/1 (1996), 49-80, p. 55.
105. Forester, 'Introduction' in Critical Theory and Public Life, p. xvi. It is precisely the inability to distinguish between degrees of imperfection that eludes those postmodern democrats who reject such ideals, see R. Blaug, 'New theories of discursive democracy: a user's guide', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 22/1 (1996), 49-80, p. 55.
106. J. Habermas, Justification and Application (Cambridge, Polity, 1993), pp. 54-5.
107. R. Kemp, 'Planning, Public Hearings, and the Politics of Discourse' in Forester, Critical Theory and Public Life, 177-201, p. 177.
108. Kemp, Planning, Public Hearings, and the Politics of Discourse, pp. 186.
109. Kemp, Planning, Public Hearings, and the Politics of Discourse, p. 196.
110. See Ferrara's discussion of this problem in 'On phronesis', Praxis International, 7/4 (1987), p. 247. Ferrara stresses the importance of phronesis in compensating for this indeterminancy.
111. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 37.
112. CES, p. 3.
113. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 87.
114. McCarthy, The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas, p. 309.
115. A. Wellmer, 'Reason, Utopia, and the Dialectic of Enlightenment' in Bernstein (ed.), Habermas and Modernity, pp. 35-66, p. 62.
116. A Wellmer 'Practical Philosophy and the Theory of Society: on the Problem of the Normative Foundations of a Critical Social Science' in S. Benhabib and F. Dallmayr (eds), The Communicative Ethics Controversy (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1990), pp. 293-329, p. 324.
117. Ray, Rethinking Critical Theory, pp. 12, 20.
118. J. Habermas, 'Further Reflections on the Public Sphere' in Calhoun, Habermas and the Public Sphere, pp. 447-8.
119. J. Habermas, 'The public sphere: an encyclopaedia article', New German Critique, 3 (1974), p.49.
120. J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Polity, 1989), pp. 24, 27.
121. J. J. Rodger, 'On the degeneration of the public sphere', Political Studies 33 (1985), p. 200.
122. A. Arato and J. Cohen, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1992).
123. K. Baynes, The Normative Grounds of Social Criticism (Albany, State University of New York, 1992), p. 180.
124. Habermas, 'Further Reflections', p. 453.
125. Habermas, 'Further Reflections', p. 436, pp. 443-4;
126. PDM, p. 363.
127. Habermas, 'Further Reflections', p. 452; J. Habermas, 'Three models of democracy, Constellations, 1/1 (1994), 1-10, pp. 8-9.
128. Habermas, 'Further Reflections', p. 452; J. Habermas, 'Three models of democracy, Constellations, 1/1 (1994), 1-10, pp. 8-9.
129. Habermas, 'Further Reflections', p. 455.
130. J. Habermas, 'The New Obscurity: the Crisis of the Welfare State and the Exhaustion of Utopian Energies' in S. W. Nicholsen (ed.), The New Conservatism: Cultural Criticism and the Historian's Debate (Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1989), pp. 48-70, p. 64.
131. Habermas, 'The New Obscurity', p. 63; PDM, p. 365.
132. Habermas, 'The New Obscurity', p. 63; PDM, p. 365.
133. PDM, p. 365.
134. J. Habermas, 'What Theories Can Accomplish - and What they Can't', in The Past as Future (Cambridge, Polity, 1994), pp. 99-120, p. 117.
135. MCCA, ft. 81, p. 114.
136. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms.
137. Benhabib, 'Deliberative rationality and models of democratic legitimacy', Constellations, 1/1 (1994), 26-52, p. 42.
138. N. Fraser, 'Rethinking the Public Sphere: a Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy' in Calhoun, Habermas and the Public Sphere, pp. 109-42.
139. J. F. Bohman, 'Communication, ideology, and democratic theory', American Political Science Review, 84/1 (1990), p. 109.
140. R. J. Bernstein, The Restructuring of Social and Political Theory (London, Methuen, 1979),
141. S. Benhabib, Critique, Norm, and Utopia (New York, Columbia University Press, 1986),
142. Baynes, Normative Grounds, p. 181; though still more useful than a 'model' would be the real thing.
143. M. Cohen, 'Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy' in A. Hamin and P. Pettit (eds), The Good Polity: Normative Analysis of the State (Oxford, Blackwell, 1991), pp. 17-34, p. 30.
144. White, 'Reason and authority'.
145. MCCA, p. 109; PDM, p. 322.
146. MCCA, p. 109; PDM, p. 322.
147. CES, pp. 183ff.; D. Ingram, The limits and possibilities of communicative ethics tor democratic theory', Political Theory, 21/2 (1993), 294-321, p. 311.
148. CES, pp. 183ff.; D. Ingram, The limits and possibilities of communicative ethics tor democratic theory', Political Theory, 21/2 (1993), 294-321, p. 311.
149. See, for example, C. C. Gould, 'On the Conception of the Common Interest: Between Procedure and Substance' in Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics, pp. 267-9, and Habermas, 'Citizenship and national identity', p. 10
150. See, for example, C. C. Gould, 'On the Conception of the Common Interest: Between Procedure and Substance' in Hermeneutics and Critical Theory in Ethics and Politics, pp. 267-9, and Habermas, 'Citizenship and national identity', p. 10
151. R. Shelly, 'Habermas and the normative foundations of a radical polities', Thesis Eleven, 35 (1993), 62-83, p. 74.
152. As, for example, in J. Cohen, 'Discourse ethics and civil society', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 14/4 (1988), 315-37, p. 326.
153. Ingram, 'Limits and possibilities', p. 311; see also Cohen, 'Discourse ethics and civil society', p. 324.
154. Ingram, 'Limits and possibilities', p. 311; see also Cohen, 'Discourse ethics and civil society', p. 324.
155. Cohen, 'Discourse ethics and civil society', p. 326.
156. Cohen, 'Discourse ethics and civil society', p. 326.
157. Baynes, Normative Grounds, p. 180, and K. Baynes, 'The liberal/communitarian controversy and communicative ethics', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 14/4 (1988), 293-313, p. 306.
158. Baynes, Normative Grounds, p. 180, and K. Baynes, 'The liberal/communitarian controversy and communicative ethics', Philosophy and Social Criticism, 14/4 (1988), 293-313, p. 306.
159. Arato and Cohen, Civil Society and Political Theory, p. 441.
160. Ingram, 'Limits and possibilities', p. 311.
161. Shelly, Normative foundations of a radical polities', p. 72.
162. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition', p. 139.
163. T. McCarthy 'Kantian constructivism, and reconstructivism: Rawls and Habermas in dialogue', Ethics, 105 (1994), 44-63; Baynes, Normative Grounds, p. 180.
164. T. McCarthy 'Kantian constructivism, and reconstructivism: Rawls and Habermas in dialogue', Ethics, 105 (1994), 44-63; Baynes, Normative Grounds, p. 180.
165. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 21.
166. J. Dryzek, 'Discursive designs: critical theory and political institutions', American Journal of Political Science, 31 (1987), 656-79, p. 664; notice once again the use of the word 'model' to characterize something participants might want from theory.
167. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 32.
168. Dryzek, 'Discursive designs', p. 665.
169. Dryzek, 'Discursive designs', p. 665.
170. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 41.
171. R. Fisher and W. Urry, Getting to Yes (Boston MA, Houghton Mifflin, 1981).
172. Dryzek, Discursive Democracy, p. 42.
173. Habermas, Theory and Practice, p. 32.
174. D. Held, Introduction to Critical Theory (Cambridge, Polity, 1980), p. 348.
175. S. Benhabib, 'Modernity and the aporias of critical theory', Telos, 49 (1981), 39-5, p. 54.
176. As explored in Blaug, 'New theories of discursive democracy: a user's guide'.
177. J. Habermas, 'A philosophical-political profile', New Left Review, 151 (1985), p. 89.