Low temperature emergence in crop plants: Biochemical and molecular aspects of germination and early seedling growth

Journal of Crop Production

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 249-289

  Nykiforuk, Cory L ^a   Johnson Flanagan, Anne M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Brassica napus; Chilling injury; Early seedling growth; Germination; Low temperature emergence

Indexed keywords

EID: 0343093976     PISSN: 1092678X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1300/J144v01n01_11     Document Type: Article

References (225)

1. Acharya, S. N., Dueck, J., and Downey, R. K., 1983. Selection and heritability studies on canola/rapeseed for low temperature germination. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 63:377–384.
2. Addae, P. C., and Pearson, C. J., 1992. Thermal requirements for germination and seedling growth of wheat. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 43:585–594.
3. Adler, L. S., Wikler, K., Wyndham, F. S., Linder, C. R., and Schmitt, J., 1993. Potential for persistence of genes escaped from canola:germination cues in crop, wild, and crop-wild hybrid. Brassica rapa. Functional Ecology, 7:736–745.
4. Akalehiywot, T., and Bewley, J. D., 1977. Promotion and synchronization of cereal grain germination by osmotic pre-treatment with polyethylene glycol. Journal of Agricultural Science, 89:503–506.
5. Akers, S. W., Berkowitz, G. A., and Rabin, J., 1987. Germination of parsley seeds primed in aerated solutions of polyethylene glycol. HortScience, 22:250–252.
6. Anderson, M. D., Prasad, T. K., Martin, B. A., and Steward, C. R., 1994. Differential gene expression in chilling-acclimated maize seedlings and evidence for the involvement of abscisic acid in chilling tolerance. Plant Physiology, 105:331–339.
7. Ashworth, E. N., and Obendorf, R. L., 1980. Imbibitional chilling injury in soybean axes:relationships to stelar lesions and seasonal environments. Agronomy Journal, 72:923–928.
8. Atkinson, D. E., 1977. Cellular Energy Metabolism and Its Regulation, New York, NY:Academic Press.
9. Baker, J. C., Steele, C., and Dure, L. M., II. 1988. Sequence and characterization of 6 Lea proteins and their genes from cotton. Plant Molecular Biology, 11:277–291.
10. Barber, S. J., Rakow, G., and Downey, R. K., 1991. Laboratory and growth room seed vigor testing of certified canola seed. GCIRC Rapeseed Congress, C-09:727–733.
11. Basra, A. S., Bedi, S., and Malik, C. P., 1988. Accelerated germination of maize seeds under chilling stress by osmotic priming and associated changes in the embryo phopholipids. Annals of Botany, 61:653–659.
12. Basra, A. S., Dhillon, R., and Malik, C. P., 1989. Influence of seed pre-treatments with plant growth regulators on metabolic alterations of germinating maize embryos under stressing temperature regimes. Annals of Botany, 64:37–41.
13. Bazanska, J., and Lewak, S., 1986. Light inhibits germination of rape seeds at unfavourable temperatures. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 8:145–149.
14. Bedi, S., and Basra, A. S., 1993. Chilling injury in germinating seeds:basic mechanisms and agricultural implications. Seed Science Research, 3:219–229.
15. Bell, J. M., 1993. “Composition of canola meal”. In Canola Meal Feed Industry Guide.l, Winnipeg, Canada:Canola Council of Canada.
16. Benga, G., and Holmes, R. P., 1984. Interactions between components in biological membranes and their implications for membrane function. Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 43:195–257.
17. Benson, E. E., 1990. Free radical damage in stored plant germplasml, 37–66. Rome:International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.
18. Bewley, J. D., and Black, M., 1994. Seeds:Physiology of Development and Germination., 2nd edition., New York, NY:Plenum Press.
19. Bodsworth, S., and Bewley, J. D., 1981. Osmotic priming of crop species with polyethylene glycol as a means of enhancing early and synchronous germination at cool temperatures. Canadian Journal of Botany, 59:672–676.
20. Bowler, C., Van Montagu, M., and Inze, D., 1992. Superoxide dismutase and stress tolerance. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 43:83–116.
21. Bramlage, W. J., Leopold, A. C., and Specht, J. E., 1979. Imbibitional chilling sensitivity among soybean cultivars. Crop Science, 19:811–814.
22. Brocklehurst, P. A., and Dearman, J., 1983a. Interactions between seed priming treatments and nine seed lots of carrot, celery and onion. I. Laboratory germination. Annals of Applied Biology, 102:577–584.
23. Brocklehurst, P. A., and Dearman, J., 1983b. Interactions between seed priming treatments and nine seed lots of carrot, celery and onion. II. Seedling emergence and plant growth. Annals of Applied Biology, 102:585–593.
24. Brocklehurst, P. A., and Dearman, J., 1984. A comparison of different chemicals for osmotic pre-treatment of vegetable seeds. Annals of Applied Biology, 105:391–398.
25. Buntin, G. D., McCafferey, J. P., Raymer, P. L., and Romero, J., 1995. Quality and germination of rapeseed and canola seed damaged by adult cabbage seedpod beevil, Ceutorhynchus assimilis (Paykull) (Coleoptera:Curculionidae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 75:539–541.
26. Burgess, R. W., and Powell, A. K., 1984. Evidence for repair processes in invigoration of seeds by hydration. Annals of Botany, 55:753–757.
27. Cal, J. P., and Obendorf, R. L., 1972. Imbibitional chilling injury in Zea Mays L. altered by initial kernel moisture and maternal parent. Crop Science, 12:369–373.
28. Canola Growers Manual. 1991. Canola Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Canada:Canola Council of Canada.
29. Capell, B., and Dörffling, K., 1989. Low temperature-induced changes of abscisic acid contents in barley and cucumber leaves in relation to their water status. Journal of Plant Physiology, 135:571–575.
30. Capell, B., and Dörffling, K., 1993. Genotype-specific differences in chilling tolerance of maize in relation to chilling-induced changes in water status and abscisic acid accumulation. Physiologia Plantarum, 88:638–647.
31. Chabot, J. P., and Leopold, A. C., 1985. Ultrastructural aspects of chilling injury in soybean seed radicle. American Journal of Botany, 72:1120–1126.
32. Choi, J. H., Liu, L., Borkird, C., and Sung, Z. R., 1987. Cloning of genes developmentally regulated during plant embryogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 84:1906–1910.
33. Christiansen, M. N., 1967. Period of sensitivity to chilling in germinating cotton. Plant Physiology, 42:520–522.
34. Christiansen, M. N., 1969. Seed moisture content and chilling injury to imbibing cotton seed. Crop Science, 9:672–673.
35. Christophersen, J., 1973. “Basic aspects of temperature action on microorganisms”. In Temperature and Life, Edited by:Precht, H., Christophersen, J., Hensel, H., and Larcher, W., 3Berlin:Springer-Verlag.
36. Cohn, M. A., Obendorf, R. L., and Rytko, G. T., 1979. Relationship of stelar lesions to radicle growth in corn seedlings. Agronomy Journal, 71:954–958.
37. Comai, L., Dietrich, R. A., Maslyar, D. J., Baden, C. S., and Harada, J. J., 1989. Coordinate expression of transcriptionally regulated isocitrate lyase and malate synthase genes in Brassica napus L. The Plant Cell, 1:293–300.
38. Comai, L., Matsudaira, K. L., Heupel, R. C., Dietrich, R. A., and Harada, J. J., 1992. Expression of a Brassica napus malate synthase gene in transgenic tomato plants during the transition from late embryogeny to germination. Plant Physiology, 98:53–61.
39. Côme, D., and Tissaoui, T., 1972. “Interrelated effects of imbibition, temperature and oxygen on seed germination”. In Seed Ecology, Edited by:Heydecker, W., 157–167. London:Butterworths.
40. Coolbear, P., and McGill, C. R., 1990. Effects of a low-temperature pre-sowing treatment on the germination of tomato seed under temperature and osmotic stress. Scientia Horticulturae, 44:43–54.
41. Crouch, M. L., and Sussex, I. M., 1981. Development and storage-protein synthesis in Brassica napus L. embryos in vivo and in vitro. Planta, 153:64–74.
42. Dahal, P., Bradford, K. J., and Jones, R. A., 1990. Effects of priming and endosperm integrity on seed germination rates of tomato genotypes. I. Germination at suboptimal temperatures. Journal of Experimental Botany, 41:1431–1439.
43. Daie, J., and Campbell, W. F., 1981. Response of tomato plants to stressful temperatures. Plant Physiology, 67:26–29.
44. Dietrich, R. A., Maslyar, D. J., Heupel, R. C., and Harada, J. J., 1989. Spatial patterns of gene expression in Brassica napus seedlings:identification of a cortex-specific gene and localization of mRNAs encoding isocitrate lyase and a polypeptide homologous to proteinases. The Plant Cell, 1:73–80.
45. Dixon, W. L., Franks, F., and Aprees, T., 1981. Cold lability of phosphofructokinase from potato tubers. Phytochemistry, 20:969–972.
46. Doman, D. C., Walker, J. C., Trelease, R. N., and Moore, B. D., 1982. Metabolism of carbohydrate and lipid reserves in germinated cotton seeds. Planta, 155:502–510.
47. Eamus, D., and Wilson, J. M., 1983. ABA levels and effects in chilled and hardened. Phaseolus vulgaris. Journal of Experimental Botany, 34:1000–1006.
48. Elstner, E. F., 1982. Oxygen activation and oxygen toxicity. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 33:73–96.
49. Eskin, N. A.M., 1992. Effect of variety and geographical location of the incidence of mucilage in canola seeds. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 72:1223–1225.
50. Ettinger, W. F., and Harada, J. J., 1990. Translational or post-translational processes affect differentially the accumulation of isocitrate lyase and malate synthase proteins and enzyme activities in embryos and seedlings of Brassica napus. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 281:139–143.
51. Eze, J. M.O., Dumbroff, E. B., and Thompson, J. E., 1983. Effects of temperature and moisture stress on the accumulation of abscisic acid in bean. Physiologia Plantarum, 58:179–183.
52. Farrar, J. F., 1988. “Temperature and the partioning and translocation of carbon”. In Plants and Temperature, Edited by:Long, S. P., and Woodward, F. I., Vol. 42, 203–236. Cambridge, England:The Company of Biologists Limited. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol.
53. Feirabend, J., Schaan, C., and Hertwig, B., 1992. Photoinactivation of catalase occurs under both high- and low-temperature stress conditions and accompanies photoinhibition of photosystem II. Plant Physiology, 100:1554–1561.
54. Fernandez, D. E., Turner, F. R., and Crouch, M. L., 1991. In situ localization of storage protein mRNAs in developing meristems of Brassica napus embryos. Development, 111:299–313.
55. Finkelstein, R. R., and Crouch, M. L., 1984. Precociously germinating rapeseed embryos retain characteristics of embryogeny. Planta, 162:125–131.
56. Finkelstein, R. R., Tenbarge, K. M., Shumway, J. E., and Crouch, M. L., 1985. Role of ABA in maturation of rapeseed embryos. Plant Physiology, 78:630–636.
57. Finlayson, A. J., 1976. “The seed protein contents of some Cruciferae”. In The Biology and Chemistry of the Cruciferae, Edited by:Vaughan, J. G., McLeod, J. G., and Jones, B. M., 279–306. New York, NY:Academic Press.
58. Frisbee, C. C, Smith, C. W., Wiesner, L. E., and Lockerman, R. H., 1988. Short term storage effects on dormancy and germination of chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Journal of Seed Technology, 12:16–23.
59. Fujikura, Y., Kraak, H. L., Basra, A. S., and Karssen, C. M., 1993. Hydropriming, a simple and inexpensive priming method. Seed Science and Technology, 21:639–642.
60. Galau, G. A., Hughes, D. W., and Dure, L., 1986. Abscisic acid induction of cloned cotton late embryogenesis-abundant (Lea) mRNAs. Plant Molecular Biology, 7:155–170.
61. Galau, G. A., Jakobsen, K. S., and Hughes, D. W., 1991. The controls of late dicot embryogenesis and early germination. Physiologia Plantarum, 81:280–288.
62. Gamble, P. E., and Mullet, J. E., 1986. Inhibition of carotenoid accumulation and abscisic acid biosynthesis in fluridone-treated dark-grown barley. European Journal of Biochemistry, 160:117–121.
63. Giaquinta, R. T., and Geiger, D. R., 1973. Mechanism of inhibition of translocation by localized chilling. Plant Physiology, 51:372–377.
64. Goldberg, R. B., Barker, S. J., and Perez-Grau, L., 1989. Regulation of gene expression during plant embryogenesis. Cell, 56:149–160.
65. Goldberg, R. B., de Paiva, G., and Yadegari, R., 1994. Plant embryogenesis:body plan elaboration and preparation for life after the seed. Science, 266:605–614.
66. Gordon-Kamm, W. J., and Steponkus, P. L., 1984. Lamellar-to-hexagonal II phase transitions in the plasma membrane of isolated protoplasts after freeze-induced dehydration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA., 81:6373–6377.
67. Graham, D., Hockley, D. G., and Patterson, B. D., 1979. “Temperature effects on phophoenol pyruvate carboxylase from chilling-sensitive and chilling-resistant plants”. In Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plants. The Role of the Membrane, Edited by:Lyons, J. M., Graham, D., and Raison, J. K., 453–461. New York, NY:Academic Press.
68. Graham, D., and Patterson, B. D., 1982. Responses of plants to low, nonfreezing temperatures:proteins, metabolism, and acclimation. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 33:347–372.
69. Gray, D., and Thomas, T. H., 1982. The Physiology and Biochemistry of Seed Development, Dormancy and Germination, Edited by:Khan, A. A., New York, NY:Elsevier Biomedical Press.
70. Grierson, W., Soule, J., and Kawada, K., 1982. Physiological aspects of physiological stress. Hort Review, 4:247–271.
71. Guo, J. Q., Chen, W. T., and Yang, Y. Z., 1989. Effects of polyvinyl alcohol pretreatment on the increase of soybean seed vigor and its protection against chilling injury. Acta Phytophysiologica Sinica, 15:251–256.
72. Gutterman, Y., Corbineau, F., and Côme, D., 1992. Interrelated effects of temperature, light, and oxygen on Amaranthus caudatus L. seed germination. Weed Research, 32:111–117.
73. Guy, C. L., 1990. Cold acclimation and freezing stress tolerance:role of protein metabolism. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 41:187–223.
74. Hallgren, J-E., and Oquist, G., 1990. “Adaptations to low temperatures”. In Stress Responses in Plants:Adaptation and Acclimation Mechanisms.l, 265–293. Wiley-Liss Inc.
75. Harada, J. J., Baden, C. S., and Comai, L., 1988. Spatially regulated genes expressed during seed germination and postgerminative development are activated during embryogeny. Molecular and General Genetics, 212:466–473.
76. Harada, J. J., DeLisle, A. J., Baden, C. S., and Crouch, M. L., 1989. Unusual sequence of an abscisic acid-inducible mRNA which accumulates late in Brassica napus seed development. Plant Molecular Biology, 12:395–401.
77. Hariyadi, P., and Parkin, K. L., 1993. Chilling-induced oxidative stress in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. Cv. Calypso) seedlings. Journal of Plant Physiology, 141:733–738.
78. Harrington, J. F., and Kihara, G. M., 1960. Chilling injury of germinating muskmelon and pepper seeds. Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science, 75:485–489.
79. Hegarty, T. W., 1973. Temperature coefficient (Q10), seed germination and other biological processes. Nature, 243:305–306.
80. Heydecker, W., and Coolbear, P., 1977. Seed treatment for improved performance-survey and attempted prognosis. Seed Science and Technology, 5:353–425.
81. Heydecker, W., and Gibbins, M., 1978. The priming of seeds. Acta Horticulturae, 83:213–223.
82. Hills, M. J., and Murphy, D. J., 1988. Characterization of lipases from the lipid bodies and microsomal membranes of erucic acid-free oilseed-rape (Brassica napus) cotyledons. Biochemical Journal, 249:687–693.
83. Hobbs, P. R., and Obendorf, R. L., 1972. Interaction of initial seed moisture and imbibitional temperature on germination and productivity of soybean. Crop Science, 12:664–667.
84. Hodgson, R. A.J., and Raison, J. K., 1991. Superoxide production by thylakoids during chilling and its implications in the susceptibility of plants to chilling-induced photoinhibition. Planta, 183:222–228.
85. Hodson, M. J., Di Nola, L., and Mayer, A. M., 1987. The effect of changing temperatures during imbibition on ultrastructure in germinating pea embryonic radicles. Journal of Experimental Botany, 38:525–534.
86. Hoglund, A-S., Rodin, J., Larsson, E., and Rask, L., 1992. Distribution of napin and cruciferin in developing rape seed embryos. Plant Physiology, 98:509–515.
87. Hong, B., Uknes, S. J., and T-Ho, H. D., 1988. Cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding a mRNA rapidly induced by ABA in barley aleurone layers. Plant Molecular Biology, 11:495–506.
88. Huang, A. H.C., 1992. Oil bodies and oleosins in seeds. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 43:177–200.
89. Hughes, D. W., and Galau, G. A., 1989. Temporally modular gene expression during cotyledon development. Genes Development, 3:358–369.
90. Hughes, D. W., and Galau, G. G., 1991. Developmental and environmental induction of Lea and LeaA mRNAs and the postabscission program during embryo culture. The Plant Cell, 3:605–618.
91. Ilker, R., Briedenbach, R. W., and Lyons, J. M., 1979. “Sequence of ultrastructural changes in tomato cotyledons during chilling”. In Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plants. The Role of the Membrane, Edited by:Lyons, J. M., Graham, D., and Raison, J. K., 97–113. New York, NY:Academic Press.
92. Imeson, H. C., Rood, S. B., Weselake, J., Zanewich, K. P., Bullock, B. A., Stobbs, K. E., and Kocsis, M. G., 1993. Hormonal control of lipase activity in oilseed rape germinants. Physiologia Plantarum, 89:476–482.
93. Jakobsen, K. S., Hughes, D. W., and Galau, G. A., 1994. Simultaneous induction of postabscission and germination mRNAs in cultured dicotyledonous embryos. Planta, 192:384–394.
94. Janowiak, F., and Dörffling, K., 1995. Chilling-induced changes in the contents of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and its N-malonyl conjugate (MACC) in seedlings of two maize inbreds differing in chilling tolerance. Journal of Plant Physiology, 147:257–262.
95. Johnson-Flanagan, A. M., Huiwen, Z., X-Geng, M., Brown, D. C.W., Nykiforuk, C. L., and Singh, J., 1992. Frost, abscisic acid and desiccation hasten embryo development in Brassica napus. Plant Physiology, 99:700–706.
96. Keller, G-A., Krisans, S., Gould, S. J., Sommer, J. M., Wang, C. C., Schliebs, W., Kunau, W., Brody, S., and Subrmani, S., 1991. Evolutionary conservation of a microbody targeting signal that targets proteins to peroxisomes, glyoxysomes and glycosomes. The Journal of Cell Biology, 114:893–904.
97. Kendall, E. J., and McKersie, B. D., 1989. Free radical and freezing injury to cell membranes of winter wheat. Physiologia Plantarum, 76:86–94.
98. Kermode, A. R., 1990. Regulatory mechanisms involved in the transition from seed development to germination. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 9(2):155–195.
99. Khan, A. A., Tao, K. L., Knypl, J. S., Borkowska, B., and Powell, L. E., 1978. Osmotic conditioning of seeds:physiological and biochemical changes. Acta Horticulturae, 83:267–278.
100. King, R. J., Kondra, Z. P., and Thiagarajah, M. R., 1986. “Selection for fast germination in rapeseed (Brassica napus L. and B. campestris L.),”. Euphytica, 35:835–842.
101. Kondra, Z. P., Campbell, D. C., and King, J. R., 1983. Temperature effects on germination of rapeseed (Brassica napus L. and B. campestris L.). Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 63:1063–1065.
102. Knypl, J. S., and Khan, A. A., 1981. Osmoconditioning of soybean seeds to improve performance at suboptimal temperatures. Agronomy Journal, 73:112–116.
103. Knypl, J. S., Janas, K. M., and Radziwonowska-Jozwiak, A., 1980. Is enhanced vigour in soybean (Glycine max) dependent on activation of protein turnover during controlled hydration of seeds?. Physiologie Vegetale, 18:157–161.
104. Krol, M., and Huner, N. P.A., 1984. Pigment accumulation during growth and development at low temperature. Advances in Photosynthesis Research, IV(4):463–466.
105. Krol, M., Huner, N. P.A., and Mc, A. Intosh., 1987. Choloplast biogenesis at coldhardening temperatures. Development of photosystem I and photosystem II activities in relation to pigment accumulation. Photosynthesis Research, 14:97–112.
106. Kuras, M., 1984. Activation of rape (Brassica napus L.) embryo during seed germination. III. Ultrastructure of dry embryo axis. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 53:171–186.
107. Kuras, M., 1986. Activation of rape (Brassica napus L.) embryo during seed germination. IV. Germinating embryo. The first zones of mitoses, starch and DNA synthesis and their expansion pattern. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 55:539–563.
108. Kuras, M., 1987. Activation of rape (Brassica napus L.) embryo during seed germination. V. The first zones of ultrastructural changes and their expansion. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 56:77–91.
109. Lane, B., 1991. Cellular desiccation and hydration:developmentally regulated proteins, and the maturation and germination of seed embryos. Biogenesis, 5:2893–2901.
110. Leopold, A. C., 1980. Temperature effects on soybean imbibition and leakage. Plant Physiology, 65:1096–1098.
111. Leopold, A. C., and Musgrave, M. E., 1979. Respiratory changes with chilling injury of soybeans. Plant Physiology, 64:702–705.
112. Leviatov, S., Shoseyov, O., and Wolf, S., 1994. Roles of different seed components in controlling tomato seed germination at low temperature. Scientia Horticulturae, 56:197–206.
113. Leviatov, S., Shoseyov, O., and Wolf, S., 1995. Involvement of endomannase in the control of tomato seed germination under low temperature conditions. Annals of Botany, 76:1–6.
114. Levitt, J., 1980. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Chilling, Freezing and High Temperature Stresses, Vol. 1, New York, NY:Academic Press.
115. Liengsiri, C., and Hellum, A. K., 1988. Effects of temperature on seed germination in Pterocarpus macrocarpus. Journal of Seed Technology, 12:66–75.
116. Lin, Y-H., and Huang, A. H.C., 1983. Lipase in lipid bodies of cotyledons of rape and mustard seedlings. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 225:360–369.
117. Liptay, A., and Schöpfer, P., 1983. Effect of water stress, seed coat restraint, and abscisic acid upon different germination capabilities of two tomato lines at low temperature. Plant Physiology, 73:935–938.
118. Livingstone, N. J., and deJong, E., 1990. Matric and osmotic potential effects on seedling emergence at different temperatures. Agronomy Journal, 82:995–998.
119. Lonnerdal, B., and Janson, J. C., 1972. Studies on Brassica seed proteins. 1. The low molecular weight proteins in rapeseed. Isolation and characterization. Biochemical and Biophysical Acta, 278:175–183.
120. Lyons, J. M., 1973. Chilling injury in plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 24:445–466.
121. Lyons, J. M., Raison, J. K., and Steponkus, P. L., 1979. “The plant membrane in response to low temperature:an overview”. In Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plants. The Role of the Membrane, Edited by:Lyons, J. M., Graham, D., and Raison, J. K., 1–24. New York, NY:Academic Press.
122. Malhotra, O. P, Dwivedi, U. N., and Srivastava, P. K., 1984. Steady state kinetics and negative cooperativity in the action of isocitrate lyase. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 21:99–105.
123. Markhart, A. H., II. 1986. Chilling injury:a review of possible causes. HortScience, 21:1329–1333.
124. Markowski, A., 1989a. Sensitivity of different species of field crops to chilling temperature. 1. Interaction of initial seed moisture and imbibition temperature. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 10:265–274.
125. Markowski, A., 1989b. Sensitivity of different species of field crops to chilling temperature. 2. Germination, growth and injuries of seedlings. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 10:275–280.
126. Martens, R., Deus-Neumann, B., and Weiler, E. W., 1983. Monoclonal antibodies and the detection and quantification of the endogenous plant growth regulator abscisic acid. Federation of European Biochemical Society Letters, 160:269–272.
127. Mayer, A. M., and Marbach, I., 1981. Progress in Phytochemistry, Edited by:Reinhold, L., Harborne, J. B., and Swain, T., Vol. 7, 95–136. New York, NY:Pergamon Press.
128. Mayer, A. M., and Poljakoff-Mayber, A., 1989. The Germination of Seeds., 4th Edition, New York, NY:Pergamon Press.
129. Michalski, W. P., and Kaniuga, Z., 1981. Photosynthetic apparatus of chilling-sensitive plants. X. Relationship between superoxide dismutase acitvity and photoperoxidation of chloroplast lipids. Biochemical and Biophysical Acta, 637:159–167.
130. Mikola, J., 1983. Seed Proteins, Edited by:Paussant, J., Mosse, J., and Vaughan, S. G., London:Academic Press.
131. Mills, P. F., 1993. “The effects of low temperatures on the germination and emergence of canola”. In Project:83-0036, Alberta Agriculture Farming for the Future.l, Beaverlodge, Alberta:Alberta Agriculture.
132. Mohapatra, S. C., and Suggs, C. W., 1989. Cultivar differences in tobacco seed response to germination temperature. Seed Science and Technology, 17:639–647.
133. Monteith, J. L., 1981. Climatic variation and the growth of crops. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 107:749–774.
134. Morrison, M. J., McVetty, P. B.E., and Shankewich, C. F., 1989. The determination and verification of a baseline temperature for the growth of westar summer rape. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 69:455–464.
135. Mundy, J., and Chua, N. H., 1988. Abscisic acid and water stress induce the expression of a novel rice gene. European Molecular Biology Organization Journal, 7:2279–2286.
136. Murphy, D. J., Cummins, I., and Kang, A. S., 1989a. Immunological investigation of lipases in germinating oilseed rape, Brassica napus. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 47:21–31.
137. Murphy, D. J., Cummins, I., and Ryan, A. J., 1989b. Immunocytochemical and biochemical study of the biosynthesis and mobilisation of the major seed storage proteins of Brassica napus. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 27:647–657.
138. Mwale, S. S., Azam-Ali, S. N., Clark, J. A., Bradley, R. G., and Chatha, M. R., 1994. Effect of temperature on the germination of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Seed Science and Technology, 22:565–571.
139. Nam, M. H., and Park, W. C., 1992. Biochemical analysis of screening cold tolerance in Brassica seedling. Research Reports of the Rural Development Administration, 34:15–20. (Suweon)
140. Nandakumar, L., and Rangaswamy, N. S., 1985. Effect of some flavonoids and phenolic acids on seed germination and rooting. Journal of Experimental Botany, 36:1313–1319.
141. Nelson, J. M., Jenkins, A., and Sharples, G. C., 1984. Soaking and other seed pretreatment effects on germination and emergence of sugarbeets at high temperature. Journal of Seed Technology, 9:79–86.
142. Nykiforuk, C. L., 1996. The enhancement of low temperature germination and early seedling growth in Brassica napusl, Edmonton, Canada:University of Alberta. cv. Westar. Ph.D. Thesis
143. Nykiforuk, C. L., and Johnson-Flanagan, A. M., 1994. Germination and early seedling development under low temperature in canola. Crop Science, 34:1047–1054.
144. O'Conner, B. J., and Gusta, L. V., 1994. Effect of low temperature and seeding depth on the germination and emergence of seven flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) cultivars. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 74:247–253.
145. Okuda, T., Matsuda, Y., Yamanaka, A., and Sagisaka, S., 1991. Abrupt increase in the level of hydrogen peroxide in leaves of winter wheat is caused by cold treatment. Plant Physiology, 97:1265–1267.
146. Olsen, L. J., Ettinger, W. F., Damsz, B., Matsudaira, K., Webb, M. A., and Harada, J. J., 1993. Targeting of glyoxysomal proteins to peroxisomes in leaves and roots of a higher plant. The Plant Cell, 5:941–952.
147. Olsen, L. J., and Harada, J. J., 1995. Peroxisomes and their assembly in higher plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 46:123–146.
148. Omran, R. G., 1980. Peroxide levels and the activity of catalase, peroxidase, and idoleacetic acid oxidase during and after chilling cucumber seedlings. Plant Physiology, 65:407–408.
149. Ong, C. K., and Monteith, J. L., 1985. Response of pearl millet to light and temperature. Field Crops Research, 11:141–160.
150. Parcy, F., Valon, C., Raynal, M., Gaubier-Comella, P., Delseny, M., and Giraudat, J., 1994. Regulation of gene expression programs during Arabidopsis seed development:Roles of the ABI3 locus and of endogenous abscisic acid. The Plant Cell, 6:1567–1582.
151. Pardossi, A., Vernieri, P., and Tognoni, F., 1992. Involvement of abscisic acid in regulating water status in Phaseolus vulgaris L. during chilling. Plant Physiology, 100:1243–1250.
152. Parkin, K. L., Marangoni, A., Jackman, R. L., Yada, R. Y., and Stanley, D. W., 1989. Chilling injury. A review of possible mechanisms. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 13:127–153.
153. Payne, P. I., Dobrzanska, M., Barlow, P. W., and Gordon, M. E., 1978. The synthesis of RNA in imbibing seed of rape (Brassica napus) prior to the onset of germination:A biochemical and cytological study. Journal of Experimental Botany, 29:77–88.
154. Perry, D. A., 1972. Seed vigour and field establishment. Horticultural Abstracts, 42:334–342.
155. Phillips, J. C., and Youngman, V. E., 1971. Effect of initial seed moisture content on emergence and yield of grain sorghum. Crop Science, 11:354–357.
156. Pollock, B. M., 1969. Imbibition temperature sensitivity of lima bean seeds controlled by initial seed moisture. Plant Physiology, 44:907–911.
157. Pollock, B. M., and Manalo, J. R., 1970. Stimulated mechanical damage to garden beans during germination. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 95:415–417.
158. Pollock, B. M., and Toole, V. K., 1966. Imbibition period as the critical temperature-sensitive stage in germination of lima bean seeds. Plant Physiology, 41:221–229.
159. Prasad, T. K., Anderson, M. D., Martin, B. A., and Stewart, C. R., 1994. Evidence for chilling-induced oxidative stress in maize seedlings and a regulatory role for hydrogen peroxide. The Plant Cell, 6:65–74.
160. Qouta, L. A., Waldron, K. W., Baydoun, E. A.H., and Brett, C. T., 1991. Changes in seed reserves and cell wall composition of component organs during germination of cabbage (Brassica oleracea) seeds. Journal of Plant Physiology, 138:700–707.
161. Quinn, P. J., 1985. A lipid-phase separation model of low-temperature damage to biological membranes. Cryobiology, 22:128–146.
162. Rao, S. C., and Dao, T. H., 1987. Soil water effects on low-temperature seedling emergence of five Brassica cultivars. Agronomy Journal, 79:517–519.
163. Raynal, M., Depigny, D., Cooke, R., and Delseny, M., 1989. Characterization of a radish nuclear gene expressed during late seed maturation. Plant Physiology, 91:829–836.
164. Rikin, A., and Richmond, A. E., 1976. Amelioration of chilling injuries in cucumber seedlings by abscisic acid. Physiologia Plantarum, 38:95–97.
165. Roberts, E. H., 1988. “Temperature and seed germination”. In Plants and Temperature, Edited by:Long, S. P., and Woodward, F. I., 109–132. Cambridge:The Company of Biologists Limited.
166. Roberts, E. H., and Ellis, R. H., 1984. “The implications of the deterioration of orthodox seeds during storage for genetic resources conservation”. In Crop Genetic Resources Conservation and Evaluation, Edited by:Holden, J. H.W., and Williams, J. T., 18–36. London:George, Allen and Unwin.
167. Ross, J. D., 1984. “Metabolite aspects of dormancy”. In Seed Physiology. Volume 2. Germination and Reserve Mobilization, Edited by:Murray, D. R., 45–76. New York:Academic Press.
168. Sanchez-Martinez, D., Puigdomenech, P., and Pages, M., 1986. Regulation of gene expression in developing Zea mays embryos. Protein synthesis during embryogenesis and early germination of maize. Plant Physiology, 82:543–549.
169. Saruyama, H., and Tanida, M., 1995. Effect of chilling on activated oxygen-scavenging enzymes in low temperature-sensitive and -tolerant cultivars of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Science, 109:105–113.
170. Sawhney, R., Quick, W. A., and Hsiao, A. I., 1985. The effect of temperature during parental vegetative growth on seed germination of wild oats (Avena fatua L.). Annals of Botany, 55:25–28.
171. Schmidt, D. H., and Tracy, W. F., 1989. Duration of imbibition affects seed leachate conductivity in sweet corn. HortScience, 24:346–347.
172. Schöpfer, P., and Plachy, C., 1984. Contol of seed germination by abscisic acid. II. Effect on embryo water uptake in Brassica napus L. Plant Physiology, 76:155–160.
173. Schöpfer, P., and Plachy, C., 1985. Contol of seed germination by abscisic acid. III. Effect on embryo growth potential (minimum turgor pressure) and growth coefficient (cell wall extensibility) in Brassica napus L. Plant Physiology, 77:676–686.
174. Scott, S. J., and Jones, R. A., 1985. Quantifying seed germination response to low temperature variation among Lycopersicon spp. Experimental and Environmental Botany, 25:129–137.
175. Sen Gupta, A., Heinen, J. L., Holoday, A. S., Burke, J. J., and Allen, R. D., 1993. Increased resistance to oxidative stress in transgenic plants that overexpress chloroplastic Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 90:1629–1633.
176. Sharma, S. S., Sharma, S., and Rai, V. K., 1992. The effect of EGTA, calcium channel blockers (lanthanum chloride and nifedipine) and their interaction with abscisic acid on seed germination of Brassica juncea cv. RLM-198. Annals of Botany, 70:295–299.
177. Shaykewich, C. F., 1973. Proposed method for measuring swelling pressure of seeds prior to germination. Journal of Experimental Botany, 24:1056–1061.
178. Shaykewich, C. F., and Williams, J., 1971. Resistance to water absorption in germinating rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Experimental Botany, 22:19–24.
179. Simon, E. W., Minchin, A., McMenamin, M. M., and Smith, J. M., 1976. The low temperature limit for seed germination. New Phytologist, 77:301–311.
180. Simon, E. W., 1979. “Seed germination at low temperatures”. In Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plants. The Role of the Membrane, Edited by:Lyons, J. M., Graham, D., and Raison, J. K., 37–46. New York:Academic Press.
181. Simon, E. W., 1984. “Early events in germination”. In Seed Physiology. Volume 2. Germination and Reserve Mobilization, Edited by:Murray, D. R., 77–115. New York:Academic Press.
182. Singer, S. M., El-Abd, S. O., Saied, H. M.E., and Abou-Hadid, A. F., 1989. Influence of tomato seed coat restraints on germination performance under suboptimal temperatures. Egyptian Journal of Horticulture, 16(2):127–132.
183. Singh, S., and Sawhney, V. K., 1992. Endogenous hormones in seeds, germination behaviour and early seedling characteristics in a normal and ogura cytoplasmic male sterile line of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Experimental Botany, 43:1497–1505.
184. Spaeth, S. C., 1989. Extrusion of protoplasm and protein bodies through pores in cell walls of pea, bean and faba bean cotyledons during imbibition. Crop Science, 29:452–459.
185. Spedding, D. J., and Wilson, A. T., 1968. Studies of the early reactions in the germination of Sinapis alba seeds. Phytochemistry, 7:897–901.
186. Steponkus, P. L., 1984. Role of the plasma membrane in freezing injury and cold acclimation. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 35:543–584.
187. Stewart, C. R., Martin, B. A., Redding, L., and Cerwick, S., 1990. Seedling growth, mitochondrial characteristics and alternative respiratory capacity of corn genotypes differing in cold tolerance. Plant Physiology, 92:761–766.
188. Storch, J., and Kleinfeld, A. M., 1985. The lipid structure of biological membranes. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 10:418–421.
189. Sugiyama, T., Schmitt, M. R., Ku, S. B., and Edwards, G. E., 1979. Differences in cold lability of pyruvate Pi dikinase among C-4 species. Plant and Cell Physiology, 20:965–971.
190. Szafirowska, A., Khan, A. A., and Peck, N. M., 1981. Osmo-conditioning of carrot seeds to improve seedling establishment and yield in cotton soil. Agronomy Journal, 73:549–556.
191. Tan, S. C., 1980. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase and the phenylalanine ammonia lyase inactivating system-effects of light, temperature and mineral deficiencies. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 7:159–168.
192. Taylor, A. G., and Dickson, M. H., 1987. Seed coat permeability in semi-hard snap bean seeds:its influence on imbibitional chilling injury. Journal of Horticultural Science, 62:183–189.
193. Taylor, A. J., Smith, C. J., and Wilson, I. B., 1991. Effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer on yield, oil content, nitrogen accumulation and water use of canola (Brassica napus L.). Fertilizer Research, 29:249–260.
194. Taylor, A. O., Slack, C. R., and McPherson, H. G., 1974. Plants under climatic stress. VI. Chilling and light effects on photosynthetic enzymes of sorghum and maize. Plant Physiology, 54:696–701.
195. Theimer, R. R., and Rosnitschek, I., 1978. Development and intracellular localization of lipase activity in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) cotyledons. Planta, 139:249–256.
196. Teran, S. G., Maiti, R. K., and Hernandez-Pinero, J. L., 1994. Seed ultrastructure of six horticultural species in relation to their germination capacity. Phyton, 55:123–128.
197. Thompson, P. A., 1972. “Geographical adaptation of seeds”. In Seed Ecology, Edited by:Heydecker, W., 31–58. London:Butterworths.
198. Tissaoui, T., and Côme, D., 1975. Mise en evidence de trois phases physiologiaues defferentes au cours de la germination de l'embryon de pommier nondormant, grace a la mesure de l'activite respiratoire. Physiologie Végétal, 13:95–102.
199. Todari, N. P., and Negi, A. K., 1992. Pretreatment of some Indian Cassia seeds to improve their germination. Seed Science and Technology, 20:582–588.
200. Tran, V. W., and Cavanagh, A. K., 1984. “Structural aspects of dormancy”. In Seed Physiology, Volume 2, Germination and Reserve Mobilization, Edited by:Murray, D. R., 1–44. New York:Academic Press.
201. Trelease, R. N., 1984. Biogenesis of glyoxysomes. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 35:321–347.
202. Tully, R. E., Musgrave, M. E., and Leopold, A. C., 1981. The seed coat as a control of imbibitional chilling injury. Crop Science, 21:312–315.
203. Tykarska, T., 1976. Rape embryogenesis. I. The proembryo development. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 45:3–16.
204. Tykarska, T., 1979. Rape embryogenesis. II. Development of embryo proper. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 48:391–421.
205. Tykarska, T., 1980. Rape embryogenesis. III. Embryo development in time. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 49:369–385.
206. Uedan, K., and Sugiyama, T., 1976. Purification and characterization of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from maize leaves. Plant Physiology, 57:906–910.
207. Vanni, P., Giachetti, E., Pinzauti, G., and McFadden, B. A., 1990. Comparative structure, function and regulation of isocitrate lyase an important assimilatory enzyme. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 3:431–458.
208. Vertucci, C. W., 1989. Seed Moisture.l, 93–115. C.S.S.A. Special Publication Number 14.
209. Vertucci, C. W., 1992. A calorimetric study of the changes in lipids during seed storage under dry conditions. Plant Physiology, 99:310–316.
210. Vertucci, C. W., and Leopold, A. C., 1983. Dynamics of imbibition of soybean embryos. Plant Physiology, 72:190–193.
211. Walker, M. A., and McKersie, B. D., 1993. Role of the ascorbate-glutathione antioxidant system in chilling resistance of tomato. Journal of Plant Physiology, 141:234–239.
212. Wang, C. Y., 1982. Physiological and biochemical responses of plants to chilling stress. HortScience, 17:173–186.
213. West, M., and Harada, J. J., 1993. Embryogenesis. The Plant Cell, 5:1361–1369.
214. Wilen, R. W., Gusta, L. V., Lei, B., Abrams, S. R., and Ewan, B. E., 1994. Effects of abscisic acid (ABA) and ABA analogs on freezing tolerance, low temperature growth, and flowering in rapeseed. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 13:235–241.
215. Wilson, D. O., and McDonald, M. B., 1986. The lipid peroxidation model of seed ageing. Seed Science and Technology, 14:269–300.
216. Wilson, R. E., Jensen, E. H., and Fernandez, G. C.J., 1992. Seed germination response to eleven forage cultivars of Brassica to temperature. Agronomy Journal, 84:200–202.
217. Wise, R. R., and Naylor, A. W., 1987. Chilling-enhanced photooxidation-evidence for the role of singlet oxygen and superoxide in the breakdown of pigments and endogenous antioxidants. Plant Physiology, 83:278–282.
218. Wolk, W. D., and Herner, R. C., 1982. Chilling injury of germinating seeds and seedlings. HortScience, 17:169–173.
219. Woodstock, L. W., 1988. Seed imbibition:a critical period for successful germination. Journal of Seed Technology, 12:1–15.
220. Wright, L. C., McMurchie, E. J., Pomeroy, M. K., and Raison, J. K., 1982. Thermal behavior and lipid composition of cauliflower plasma membranes in relation to ATPase activity and chilling sensitivity. Plant Physiology, 69:1356–1360.
221. Xin, A., and Li, P. H., 1992. Abscisic acid-induced chilling tolerance of maize suspension-cultured cells. Plant Physiology, 99:707–711.
222. Yan, Y. T., 1987. Effect of PEG priming in preventing imbibitional chilling injury in soybean seeds. Plant Physiology Communications, 4:24–27.
223. Yan, Y. T., Liang, Z., Zheng, G. H., and Tang, P. S., 1989. Effect of low temperature imbibition on mitochondrion respiration and phosphorylation of PEG primed soybean seed. Acta Botanica Sinica, 31:441–448.
224. Yang, Y. Z., Chen, W. T., and Guo, J. Q., 1992. Effects of PVA and PEG pretreatment on development and ultrastructure of plumular root mitochondria in soybean seed during low temperature imbibition process. Acta Botanica Sinica, 34:432–436.
225. Zheng, G. H., Wilen, R. W., Slinkard, A. E., and Gusta, L. V., 1994. Enhancement of canola seed germination and seedling emergence at low temperature by priming. Crop Science, 34:1589–1593.