Childbearing and female bonding in early modern England

Social History

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 286-306

  Pollock, Linda A ^a  

^a TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0343056518     PISSN: 03071022     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03071029708568010     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Feminism without Illusions. A Critique of Individualism (Chapel Hill, 1991), 21.
2. European historiography does not address these issues as directly as US historiography, but these concepts form the basic assumptions of European scholarship.
3. Fox-Genovese, op. cit., 11, 13, 22.
4. Elsa Barkeley Brown, '"What has happened here": the politics ot difference in women's history and feminist politics', Feminist Studies, XVIII (1992), 295-312, citing 301. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, 'African-American women's history and the metalanguage of race', Signs, XVI (1992), 251-74.
5. Elsa Barkeley Brown, '"What has happened here": the politics ot difference in women's history and feminist politics', Feminist Studies, XVIII (1992), 295-312, citing 301. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, 'African-American women's history and the metalanguage of race', Signs, XVI (1992), 251-74.
6. Fox-Genovese, op. cit., 31.
7. Nancy Hewitt, 'Beyond the search for sisterhood: American women's history in the 19805', Social History, X (1985), 299-321.
8. Lori D. Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence. Morality, Politics and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven, 1990), 220.
9. Helen Callaway, '"The most essentially female function of all": giving birth' in S. Ardener (ed.), Defining Females. The Nature of Women in Society (New York, 1978), 163-85.
10. Isaac H. Jeayes (ed.), Letters of Philip Gawdy of West Harling, Norfolk and of London to Various Members of His Family 1579-1616 (London, 1906), 94.
11. John Loftis (ed.), The Memoirs of Anne, Lady Halkett and Ann, Lady Fanshawe (Oxford, 1979), 22, 1646.
12. Patricia Crawford, 'The construction and experience of maternity in seventeenth-century England' in Valerie Fildes (ed.), Women as Mothers in Pre-Industrial England. Essays in Memory of Dorothy McLaren (London, 1990), 3-38, citing 21, 27.
13. Adrian Wilson, 'The ceremony of childbirth and its interpretation' in Fildes (ed.), op. cit., 68-107, citing 70.
14. Sara Mendelson, The Mental World of Stuart Women: Three Studies (Brighton, 1987), 8.
15. Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam. Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1981), 108. See also Diana O'Hara, '"Ruled by my friends": aspects of marriage in the diocese of Canterbury, c. 1540-1570', Continuity and Change, VI (1991), 9-41, especially 31. Jacques Gélis has emphasized the reality of female ties and alliances in ancien régime France: Jacques Gélis, Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe, trans. by Rosemary Morris (Boston, 1991), 97-8.
16. Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam. Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1981), 108. See also Diana O'Hara, '"Ruled by my friends": aspects of marriage in the diocese of Canterbury, c. 1540-1570', Continuity and Change, VI (1991), 9-41, especially 31. Jacques Gélis has emphasized the reality of female ties and alliances in ancien régime France: Jacques Gélis, Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe, trans. by Rosemary Morris (Boston, 1991), 97-8.
17. Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam. Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1981), 108. See also Diana O'Hara, '"Ruled by my friends": aspects of marriage in the diocese of Canterbury, c. 1540-1570', Continuity and Change, VI (1991), 9-41, especially 31. Jacques Gélis has emphasized the reality of female ties and alliances in ancien régime France: Jacques Gélis, Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe, trans. by Rosemary Morris (Boston, 1991), 97-8.
18. Wilson, 'The ceremony of childbirth', op. cit., 96. David Cressy takes issue with the presentation of churching in the historiography as 'a classic rite de passage dealing with female pollution, as a cultural response to the fear of women and as a man-made instrument for their control'. He supports Wilson in viewing churching as an occasion for female social activity, concurs that the purification element of the ceremony was unimportant but departs from Wilsons portrayal of it as part of women's resistance to patriarchal power. Rather, it provided an opportunity for 'hospitality, conviviality and display'; in other words, a chance to dress up, feast, drink and chat. It was an occasion for social pleasure rather than female solidarity although, one assumes, the former did not preclude the latter. David Cressy, 'Purification, Thanksgiving and the churching of women in post-reformation England', Past and Present, CXLI (1993), 106-46.
19. Wilson, 'The ceremony of childbirth', op. cit., 96. David Cressy takes issue with the presentation of churching in the historiography as 'a classic rite de passage dealing with female pollution, as a cultural response to the fear of women and as a man-made instrument for their control'. He supports Wilson in viewing churching as an occasion for female social activity, concurs that the purification element of the ceremony was unimportant but departs from Wilsons portrayal of it as part of women's resistance to patriarchal power. Rather, it provided an opportunity for 'hospitality, conviviality and display'; in other words, a chance to dress up, feast, drink and chat. It was an occasion for social pleasure rather than female solidarity although, one assumes, the former did not preclude the latter. David Cressy, 'Purification, Thanksgiving and the churching of women in post-reformation England', Past and Present, CXLI (1993), 106-46.
20. Wilson, 'The ceremony of childbirth', op. cit., 83.
21. Stafford Record Office (subsequently StRO), Jerningham Mss., D641/3/H/31, fo. 65.
22. For specific examples of these points see Linda A. Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage: the experience of pregnancy in early-modern society' in Hildes (ed.), op. cit., 39-67.
23. Sheffield Central Library (subsequently SCL), Strafford papers, vol. 22/105.
24. Huntington Library (subsequently HL), Ellesmere Mss., EL 149.
25. HL, Ellesmere Mss., EL 11143.
26. British Library (subsequently BL), Gawdy papers, Add. Mss. 27, 395, fo. 125.
27. StRO, Paget Mss., D603.
28. Derbyshire Record Office (subsequently DRO), Chandos-Pole-Gell Mss., 0258, box 44/4/30.
29. Bodleian Library (subsequently BodL), Herrick Mss., English hist. c. 474, col. 1, fo. 132, 1590.
30. Leonore Davidoff, The Best Circles. Society, Etiquette and the Season (London, 1973); Laura Gowing, 'Language, power and the law: women's slander litigation in early modern London' in Jenny Kermode and Garthine Walker (eds), Women, Crime and the Courts in Early Modern England (Chapel Hill, 1994), 26-47.
31. Leonore Davidoff, The Best Circles. Society, Etiquette and the Season (London, 1973); Laura Gowing, 'Language, power and the law: women's slander litigation in early modern London' in Jenny Kermode and Garthine Walker (eds), Women, Crime and the Courts in Early Modern England (Chapel Hill, 1994), 26-47.
32. Folger Shakespeare Library (subsequently FSL), Shrewsbury Mss., Letters of Elizabeth, Countess of Shrewsbury, XD 428/16, 15905.
33. Ralph Houlbrooke (ed.) English Family Life 1576-1716. An Anthology from Diaries (Oxford, 1988), 117; Alan Macfarlane, The Family Life of Ralph Josselin, a Seventeenth-century Clergyman. An Essay in Historical Anthology (London, 1977), 84.
34. Ralph Houlbrooke (ed.) English Family Life 1576-1716. An Anthology from Diaries (Oxford, 1988), 117; Alan Macfarlane, The Family Life of Ralph Josselin, a Seventeenth-century Clergyman. An Essay in Historical Anthology (London, 1977), 84.
35. SCL, Wentworth-Woodhouse muniments, Bright papers, BR 79a.
36. See further examples in Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 47-9 and A Lasting Relationship. Parents and Children over Three Centuries (London, 1987), 27-9. The maternal mortality rate in the seventeenth century was about 1 per cent. Since this risk was encountered with every child- birth experienced by a woman, women in general had a cumulative risk of dying in childbed of about 6-7 per cent. R. Schofield, 'Did the mothers really die? Three centuries of maternal mortality in "the world we have lost"' in L. Bonfield, R. M. Smith and K. Wrightson (eds), The World We Have Gained. Histories of Population and Social Structure (Oxford, 1986), 231-60, citing 259-60. The evidence cited below makes nonsense of Jacques Gélis's comment that women in the seventeenth century screamed throughout the labour as 'a kind of cultural behaviour rather than an expression of pain . . . a public affirmation that the confinement was under way'; Gélis, op. cit., 120-1.
37. See further examples in Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 47-9 and A Lasting Relationship. Parents and Children over Three Centuries (London, 1987), 27-9. The maternal mortality rate in the seventeenth century was about 1 per cent. Since this risk was encountered with every child- birth experienced by a woman, women in general had a cumulative risk of dying in childbed of about 6-7 per cent. R. Schofield, 'Did the mothers really die? Three centuries of maternal mortality in "the world we have lost"' in L. Bonfield, R. M. Smith and K. Wrightson (eds), The World We Have Gained. Histories of Population and Social Structure (Oxford, 1986), 231-60, citing 259-60. The evidence cited below makes nonsense of Jacques Gélis's comment that women in the seventeenth century screamed throughout the labour as 'a kind of cultural behaviour rather than an expression of pain . . . a public affirmation that the confinement was under way'; Gélis, op. cit., 120-1.
38. See further examples in Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 47-9 and A Lasting Relationship. Parents and Children over Three Centuries (London, 1987), 27-9. The maternal mortality rate in the seventeenth century was about 1 per cent. Since this risk was encountered with every child-birth experienced by a woman, women in general had a cumulative risk of dying in childbed of about 6-7 per cent. R. Schofield, 'Did the mothers really die? Three centuries of maternal mortality in "the world we have lost"' in L. Bonfield, R. M. Smith and K. Wrightson (eds), The World We Have Gained. Histories of Population and Social Structure (Oxford, 1986), 231-60, citing 259-60. The evidence cited below makes nonsense of Jacques Gélis's comment that women in the seventeenth century screamed throughout the labour as 'a kind of cultural behaviour rather than an expression of pain . . . a public affirmation that the confinement was under way'; Gélis, op. cit., 120-1.
39. See further examples in Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 47-9 and A Lasting Relationship. Parents and Children over Three Centuries (London, 1987), 27-9. The maternal mortality rate in the seventeenth century was about 1 per cent. Since this risk was encountered with every child- birth experienced by a woman, women in general had a cumulative risk of dying in childbed of about 6-7 per cent. R. Schofield, 'Did the mothers really die? Three centuries of maternal mortality in "the world we have lost"' in L. Bonfield, R. M. Smith and K. Wrightson (eds), The World We Have Gained. Histories of Population and Social Structure (Oxford, 1986), 231-60, citing 259-60. The evidence cited below makes nonsense of Jacques Gélis's comment that women in the seventeenth century screamed throughout the labour as 'a kind of cultural behaviour rather than an expression of pain . . . a public affirmation that the confinement was under way'; Gélis, op. cit., 120-1.
40. Colin B. Atkinson and William P. Stonemane, '"These griping griefs and pinching pangs": attitudes to childbirth in Thomas Bentley's The Monument of Matrones (1582)', Sixteenth Century Journal, XXI (1990), 193-203, citing 202.
41. John M. Gray (ed.), 'Memoirs of the life of Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, Baronet', Scottish Historical Society, XIII (1892), 39-40. See also the death in childbirth of Frances Drax, a full description ot which is given in Pollock, A Lasting Relationship, op. cit., 32-3.
42. John M. Gray (ed.), 'Memoirs of the life of Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, Baronet', Scottish Historical Society, XIII (1892), 39-40. See also the death in childbirth of Frances Drax, a full description ot which is given in Pollock, A Lasting Relationship, op. cit., 32-3.
43. HL, Ellesmere Mss., EL 8376, fos 25-44.
44. Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 47.
45. University of Nottingham, Portland Mss., Cavendish Letters, PW1/84, 1656.
46. HL, North Collection, HM 52387-52409.
47. On another occasion, the Countess of Wemyss reprimanded her daughter for not writing often enough: 'All I shall say more of the matter is it would be fitt for you to consider how you shall take it if yr owne dauter follow ye same method with you as I hope she never will.' Scottish Record Office, Melville Mss., GD26/13/401/fos 17, 22, 23, 29.
48. StRO, Congreve Mss., D1057/0, common-place book, fos 73, 79, 82v, 1605-8.
49. Lambeth Palace Library (subsequently LPL), Shrewsbury and Talbot papers, MS 3205, vol. 0, fos 139, 141, 143.
50. Ann's daughter arrived safely around 7 am. Mendelson, op. cit., 99; Charlotte Fell Smith, Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick (1625-1678): Her Family and Friends (London, 1901), 281, 301.
51. Ann's daughter arrived safely around 7 am. Mendelson, op. cit., 99; Charlotte Fell Smith, Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick (1625-1678): Her Family and Friends (London, 1901), 281, 301.
52. Macfarlane, op. cit., 114-15.
53. See, for example, Sabine Johnson who was attended in childbirth by her married sisters or sisters-in-law. Barbara Winchester, Tudor Family Portrait (London, 1955), 101, 103.
54. For examples see Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 52 and A Lasting Relationship, op. cit., 27, 28; BL, Gawdy Mss., Eg. 2804, 56; BL, Oxinden Mss., Add. Mss., 27,999, 266.
55. For examples see Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 52 and A Lasting Relationship, op. cit., 27, 28; BL, Gawdy Mss., Eg. 2804, 56; BL, Oxinden Mss., Add. Mss., 27,999, 266.
56. Jane Sharp, The Midwives' Book Or the Whole Art of Midwifery Discovered (1671) (facsimile edition New York and London, 1985).
57. Dorothy Meads (ed.), Diary of Lady Margaret Hoby 1599-1605 (London, 1930), 63, 191-2, 195.
58. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife's Tale. The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on her Diary 1785-1812 (New York, 1990), 169, 180-1, 182.
59. Somerset Record Office (subsequently SRO), Phelip Mss., DD/PH, vol. 229, to. 24b.
60. C. Jackson (ed.), 'The autobiography of Mrs Alice Thornton of East Newton, Co. York', Surtees Society, LXII (1875), 123-4.
61. Houlbrooke, op. cit., 126.
62. As Patricia Crawford has noted, men were not excluded from it: Crawford, op. cit., 28.
63. LPL, Shrewsbury and Talbot papers, MS 3197, vol. F, fo. 365.
64. J. J. Bagley (ed.), 'The Great Diurnall of Nicholas Blundell', Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, CX (1968), CXII (1970), CXIV (1972), citing CX, 60, 61, 62.
65. J. J. Bagley (ed.), 'The Great Diurnall of Nicholas Blundell', Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, CX (1968), CXII (1970), CXIV (1972), citing CX, 60, 61, 62.
66. J. J. Bagley (ed.), 'The Great Diurnall of Nicholas Blundell', Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, CX (1968), CXII (1970), CXIV (1972), citing CX, 60, 61, 62.
67. Arthur Searle (ed.), 'Barrington family letters 1628-1632', Camden Society, 4th series, XXVIII (1983), 181.
68. FSL, Loseley Mss., vol. 5, fo. 34, c. 1600.
69. SRO, Phelip Mss., SRO, DD/PH, vol. 224, fo. 33. See also the extensive correspondence between Edmund Verney and his father over the arrangements for the lying-in of Mary Verney, discussed in Ann Giardina Hess, 'Midwifery practice among the Quakers in southern rural England in the late seventeenth century' in Hilary Marland (ed.), The Art of Midwifery. Early Modern Midwives in Europe (London, 1993), 49-76
70. SRO, Phelip Mss., SRO, DD/PH, vol. 224, fo. 33. See also the extensive correspondence between Edmund Verney and his father over the arrangements for the lying-in of Mary Verney, discussed in Ann Giardina Hess, 'Midwifery practice among the Quakers in southern rural England in the late seventeenth century' in Hilary Marland (ed.), The Art of Midwifery. Early Modern Midwives in Europe (London, 1993), 49-76
71. . 56 See the examples in Pollock, 'Embarking on a rough passage', op. cit., 52-3.
72. Winchester, op. cit., 101.
73. Hugh Cholmley, The Memoirs of Sir Hugh Cholmley (1787), 81.
74. Frances Parthenope Verney, Memoirs of the Verney Family, 2 vols (1892), 11, 9.
75. Doreen Evenden, 'Mothers and their midwives in seventeenth-century London' in Marland (ed.), op. cit., 9-26.
76. Cholmley, op. cit., 41, 1625.
77. Relatives, on the other hand, were at times invited. Hess, 'Midwifery practice', op. cit., 64.
78. Loftis, op. cit., passim.
79. Verney, op. cit., 1, 358.
80. BodL, Henry Mss., English letters E. 29, fo. 67.
81. BL, Hatton Mss., Add. Mss., 29571, fos 459, 472.
82. Nottinghamshire Record Office, Savile Mss., DDSR/221/97/7, 1659.
83. BodL, Herrick Mss., English hist.c.474, col. 1, fo. 132, 1590.
84. Houlbrooke, op. cit., 112.
85. ibid., 114, 118; Macfarlane, op. cit., 85.
86. ibid., 114, 118; Macfarlane, op. cit., 85.
87. Houlbrooke, op. cit., 109.
88. The word 'friend' in this period often denotes someone who can supply an individual with some kind of assistance or service. Miriam Slater, Family Life in the Seventeenth Century. The Verneys of Claydon House (London, 1984), 34-5; Naomi Tadmor, '"Family" and "friend" in Pamela: a case-study in the history of the family in eighteenth-century England', Social History, XIV, 3 (1989), 289-306.
89. The word 'friend' in this period often denotes someone who can supply an individual with some kind of assistance or service. Miriam Slater, Family Life in the Seventeenth Century. The Verneys of Claydon House (London, 1984), 34-5; Naomi Tadmor, '"Family" and "friend" in Pamela: a case-study in the history of the family in eighteenth-century England', Social History, XIV, 3 (1989), 289-306.
90. The midwife Martha Ballard needed at least two assistants to help with a delivery. Ulrich, op. cit., 185, 187.
91. Adrian Wilson, 'Participant or patient? Seventeenth-century childbirth from the mother's point of view' in Roy Porter (ed.), Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perception of Medicine in Pre-industrial Society (Cambridge, 1985), 143-4.
92. Adrian Wilson has argued that the presence of other women may even have been required to 'police' the lying-in and ensure that the husband obeyed the norms; Wilson, 'Ceremony of child-birth', op. cit., 87.
93. BL, Henry papers. Add. Mss., 45534, fo. 32.
94. Laurel Ulrich suggests that the women were called once the cervix was fully dilated. Ulrich, op. cit., 184-5. See too the quote from Matthew Henry cited above and R. V. Schnucker, 'The English Puritans and pregnancy, delivery and breast feeding', History of Childhood Quarterly, 1 (1974), 637-58.
95. Laurel Ulrich suggests that the women were called once the cervix was fully dilated. Ulrich, op. cit., 184-5. See too the quote from Matthew Henry cited above and R. V. Schnucker, 'The English Puritans and pregnancy, delivery and breast feeding', History of Childhood Quarterly, 1 (1974), 637-58.
96. J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England 1550-1750 (London, 1984), 61; Keith Wrightson, 'Infanticide in European history', Criminal Justice History, III (1982), 1-20.
97. J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England 1550-1750 (London, 1984), 61; Keith Wrightson, 'Infanticide in European history', Criminal Justice History, III (1982), 1-20.
98. Martin Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570-1640 (Cambridge, 1987), 3.
99. See Schnucker, op. cit., 640, on women attending childbirth, so that if an emergency situation arose and they were called upon to help out, they could do so.
100. BodL, Tucker Mss., S. Don.b.16/3.
101. Searle, op. cit., 123, 1630.
102. It is also possible that gatherings of women were not something desired by the participants themselves but were imposed upon women by the community and/or authorities. With reference to churching, for example, one woman was presented before the church courts in seventeenth-century Essex because 'She came to be churched undecently and unwomanly without any woman with her'; F. G. Emmison, Elizabethan Life: Morals and the Church Courts (Chelmsford, 1973), 160. When the wife of Robert Aylet came to give thanks in 1592 it was 'without any other women with her, to the offence of her neighbours'; Cressy, op. cit., 128.
103. It is also possible that gatherings of women were not something desired by the participants themselves but were imposed upon women by the community and/or authorities. With reference to churching, for example, one woman was presented before the church courts in seventeenth-century Essex because 'She came to be churched undecently and unwomanly without any woman with her'; F. G. Emmison, Elizabethan Life: Morals and the Church Courts (Chelmsford, 1973), 160. When the wife of Robert Aylet came to give thanks in 1592 it was 'without any other women with her, to the offence of her neighbours'; Cressy, op. cit., 128.
104. Wilson, 'Participant or patient', op. cit., 142. Wilson is constrained in his discussion of this conflict by his assumption that the gossips were the specifically selected friends of the mother.
105. ibid., 135-6.
106. Alan Macfarlane (ed.), 'The diary of Ralph Josselin', British Academy Records of Social and Economic History, new series, in (1976), 415.
107. Adrian Wilson, 'William Hunter and the varieties of man-midwifery' in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World (Cambridge, 1985), 346, 366-7.
108. Percival Willughby, Observations in Midwifery, ed. by Henry Blenkinsop (Wakefield, 1972), 39, 84-5, 142. This is a biased text in the sense that Willughby was concerned with documenting problems with midwives. However, this does not negate the point that such conflict existed. Evidence on the generally high level of competence of early modern midwives can be found in the essays in Marland (ed.), op. cit., n. 79.
109. Percival Willughby, Observations in Midwifery, ed. by Henry Blenkinsop (Wakefield, 1972), 39, 84-5, 142. This is a biased text in the sense that Willughby was concerned with documenting problems with midwives. However, this does not negate the point that such conflict existed. Evidence on the generally high level of competence of early modern midwives can be found in the essays in Marland (ed.), op. cit., n. 79.
110. S9 Willughby, op. cit., 131, 156.
111. Wilson, 'Patient or participant', op. cit., 143. Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil. Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London, 1994), 201, 210, 217, found that the majority of witchcraft accusations in sixteenth- century Augsburg were based on a mother accusing the lying-in maid of witchcraft. Unlike in England, midwives in continental Europe appear to have been more vulnerable to witchcraft accusations.
112. Wilson, 'Patient or participant', op. cit., 143. Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil. Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London, 1994), 201, 210, 217, found that the majority of witchcraft accusations in sixteenth-century Augsburg were based on a mother accusing the lying-in maid of witchcraft. Unlike in England, midwives in continental Europe appear to have been more vulnerable to witchcraft accusations.
113. Edward Shorter, A History of Women's Bodies (New York, 1982), 54; Gélis, op. cit., 98. Criticizing midwives and the traditional pattern of birth was part of the medical men's campaign to oust women from childbirth. Their complaints were undoubtedly exaggerated, but they were not likely to have been entirely concocted.
114. Edward Shorter, A History of Women's Bodies (New York, 1982), 54; Gélis, op. cit., 98. Criticizing midwives and the traditional pattern of birth was part of the medical men's campaign to oust women from childbirth. Their complaints were undoubtedly exaggerated, but they were not likely to have been entirely concocted.
115. MacDonald, op. cit., 108-9.
116. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (Middlesex, 1973), 663-4.
117. Wilson, 'The ceremony of childbirth', op. cit., 71.
118. MacDonald, op. cit., 109.
119. Roper, op. cit., 17, 21, 26-7.
120. Gail Kern Paster, The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines of Shame in Early Modern England (Ithaca, 1993), 165, 173, 185, 189, 208, 215.
121. Gowing, 'Language, power and the law', op. cit., 31.
122. Laura Gowing, 'Gender and the language of insult in early modern London', History Workshop, XXXV (1993), 1-21, citing 13; Gowing, 'Language, power and the law', op. cit., 31.
123. Laura Gowing, 'Gender and the language of insult in early modern London', History Workshop, XXXV (1993), 1-21, citing 13; Gowing, 'Language, power and the law', op. cit., 31.
124. Clive Holmes, 'Women: witnesses and witches', Past and Present, CXL (1993), 45-78, citing 49.
125. For an analysis of the concern with order see Susan Amussen, An Ordered Society. Gender and Class in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1988).
126. Gowing, 'Language, power and the law', op. cit., 36.
127. Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1988), 130.
128. James Sharpe, Crime in Seventeenth-century England. A County Study (Cambridge, 1983), 57.
129. Martin Ingram, 'The reform of popular culture? Sex and marriage in early modern England' in Barry Reay (ed.), Popular Culture in Seventeenth-century England (London, 1985), 129-65.
130. Peter C. Hoffer and N. E. H. Hull, Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England 1558-1803, Linden Studies in Anglo-American Legal History (New York, 1981), 3, 13.
131. Amussen, op. cit., 111.
132. ibid., 116. For more examples see also G. R. Quaife, Wanton Wenches and Wayward Wives. Peasants and Illicit Sex in Early Seventeenth-Century England (New Brunswick, 1979), 102.
133. ibid., 116. For more examples see also G. R. Quaife, Wanton Wenches and Wayward Wives. Peasants and Illicit Sex in Early Seventeenth-Century England (New Brunswick, 1979), 102.
134. Emmison, op. cit., 153-4.
135. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage, op. cit., 286.
136. DRO, Chandos-Pole-Gell Mss., box 58/431.
137. BodL, Henry Mss., English letters E 29, fo. 30.
138. Quaife, op. cit., 102.
139. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage, op. cit., 289.
140. Quaite, op. cit., 106; Sharpe, Crime in Seventeenth-Century England, op. cit., 59.
141. Quaite, op. cit., 106; Sharpe, Crime in Seventeenth-Century England, op. cit., 59.
142. David Harley, 'Provincial midwives in England: Lancashire and Cheshire, 1660-1760' in Marland (ed.), op. cit., 27-48.
143. ibid., 37.
144. Quaife, op. cit., 105.
145. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage, op. cit., 263.
146. Hoffer and Hull, op. cit., 14.
147. ibid., 15.
148. Quaife, op. cit., 105.
149. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage, op. cit., 3.
150. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England, op. cit., 61.
151. Hoffer and Hull, op. cit., 104.
152. Amussen, op. cit., 113; Harley, op. cit., 38; Wrightson, op. cit., 6; R. W. Malcolmson, 'Infanticide in the eighteenth century' in J. S. Cockburn (ed.), Crime in England 1550-1800 (Princeton, 1977), 187-209.
153. Amussen, op. cit., 113; Harley, op. cit., 38; Wrightson, op. cit., 6; R. W. Malcolmson, 'Infanticide in the eighteenth century' in J. S. Cockburn (ed.), Crime in England 1550-1800 (Princeton, 1977), 187-209.
154. Amussen, op. cit., 113; Harley, op. cit., 38; Wrightson, op. cit., 6; R. W. Malcolmson, 'Infanticide in the eighteenth century' in J. S. Cockburn (ed.), Crime in England 1550-1800 (Princeton, 1977), 187-209.
155. Amussen, op. cit., 113; Harley, op. cit., 38; Wrightson, op. cit., 6; R. W. Malcolmson, 'Infanticide in the eighteenth century' in J. S. Cockburn (ed.), Crime in England 1550-1800 (Princeton, 1977), 187-209.
156. Wrightson, op. cit., 7.
157. Holmes, op. cit., 58.
158. Gowing, 'Language, power and the law', op. cit., 29.
159. Gowing, 'Gender and the language of insult', op. cit., 14.
160. Miranda Chaytor, 'Household and kinship in Ryton in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries'. History Workshop, X (1980), 25-60.
161. Alison Wall (ed.), 'Two Elizabethan women: correspondence of Joan and Maria Thynne 1575-1611', Wiltshire Record Society, XXXVIII (1983), 21, 22, 27, 29, 31.
162. ibid., 33-4.
163. ibid., 34.
164. Alice Friedman, House and Household in Elizabethan England. Wottaton Hall and the Willoughby Family (Chicago, 1989), 47-8.
165. Mendelson, op. cit., 83-4; Linda Pollock, With Faith and Physic. The Life of a Tudor Gentlewoman, Lady Grace Mildmay 1552-1620 (London, 1993), 19-20, 143.
166. Mendelson, op. cit., 83-4; Linda Pollock, With Faith and Physic. The Life of a Tudor Gentlewoman, Lady Grace Mildmay 1552-1620 (London, 1993), 19-20, 143.
167. Kermode and Walker (eds), op. cit., 8.