The shadow-politics of Wolofisation

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 25-46

  Cruise O'Brien, Donal ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0342720358     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022278x97002644     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. D. Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge, 1992). My own research on the Wolofisation movement was principally in Jan.-Apr. 1975, updated by occasional interviews during field visits in 1981, 1983, 1992 and 1997.
2. On the 'Shadow theatre of ethnicity' in J. F. Bayart, The State in Africa. The politics of the belly (London, 1993), pp. 41-59.
3. See G. Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis. History of a genocide, 1959-1994 (London, 1995).
4. W. Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge, 1995). One might also bear in mind Emmanuel Terray's distinction between the politics of the 'air conditioner' and that of 'the verandah' in Côte d'Ivoire. The distributionist politics of the verandah here involve many other languages besides the official French of the air conditioner. See E. Terray, 'Le climatiseur et la véranda', in Collectif, Afrique Plurielle, Afrique Actuelle (Hommages à Georges Balandier) (Paris, 1986).
5. W. Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge, 1995). One might also bear in mind Emmanuel Terray's distinction between the politics of the 'air conditioner' and that of 'the verandah' in Côte d'Ivoire. The distributionist politics of the verandah here involve many other languages besides the official French of the air conditioner. See E. Terray, 'Le climatiseur et la véranda', in Collectif, Afrique Plurielle, Afrique Actuelle (Hommages à Georges Balandier) (Paris, 1986).
6. See L. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal (Cambridge, 1995), p. 49.
7. Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction, p. 157; 'Language chauvinism' may be unusual in Africa, but it is not unknown. The governmental imposition of Amharic in Ethiopia until 1991 is thus analysed by Mekuria Bulcha, in 'The politics of linguistic homogenization in Ethiopia and the conflict over afaan Oromoo', African Affairs, 96, 384 (1997), 325-52.
8. Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction, p. 157; 'Language chauvinism' may be unusual in Africa, but it is not unknown. The governmental imposition of Amharic in Ethiopia until 1991 is thus analysed by Mekuria Bulcha, in 'The politics of linguistic homogenization in Ethiopia and the conflict over afaan Oromoo', African Affairs, 96, 384 (1997), 325-52.
9. J. Das Gupta, 'Ethnicity, language demands and national development in India', in N. Glazer and D. P. Moynihan (eds.), Ethnicity: theory and experience (Cambridge, MA, 1975), pp. 466-88.
10. A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, 1986), pp. 153-73.
11. See tables for ethnic membership and language use (Senegal and Fatick) in Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, pp. 48-50, 53.
12. See F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire: étude statistique', Dakar: Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 1965. The main findings of this survey, of languages spoken by primary schoolchildren (and their parents) in 1963-4, were also provided in a much shorter, undated pamphlet, 'L'expansion du Wolof au Sénégal', Dakar: CLAD, n.d. This 1963-4 survey covered 360 state primary schools from all the regions of Senegal - 35,434 pupils. The questionnaire distributed in the schools asked, for each pupil, mother's language, father's language, first language spoken in the home, other languages spoken by the pupil; see also Francine Kane, 'Sociologie des langues au Sénégal', Thèse de Doctorat, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1974, and D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'L'enjeu politique de la Wolofisation', in Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire de Bordeaux, Année Africaine 1979, Paris: Pedone, pp. 319-35.
13. See F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire: étude statistique', Dakar: Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 1965. The main findings of this survey, of languages spoken by primary schoolchildren (and their parents) in 1963-4, were also provided in a much shorter, undated pamphlet, 'L'expansion du Wolof au Sénégal', Dakar: CLAD, n.d. This 1963-4 survey covered 360 state primary schools from all the regions of Senegal - 35,434 pupils. The questionnaire distributed in the schools asked, for each pupil, mother's language, father's language, first language spoken in the home, other languages spoken by the pupil; see also Francine Kane, 'Sociologie des langues au Sénégal', Thèse de Doctorat, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1974, and D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'L'enjeu politique de la Wolofisation', in Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire de Bordeaux, Année Africaine 1979, Paris: Pedone, pp. 319-35.
14. See F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire: étude statistique', Dakar: Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 1965. The main findings of this survey, of languages spoken by primary schoolchildren (and their parents) in 1963-4, were also provided in a much shorter, undated pamphlet, 'L'expansion du Wolof au Sénégal', Dakar: CLAD, n.d. This 1963-4 survey covered 360 state primary schools from all the regions of Senegal - 35,434 pupils. The questionnaire distributed in the schools asked, for each pupil, mother's language, father's language, first language spoken in the home, other languages spoken by the pupil; see also Francine Kane, 'Sociologie des langues au Sénégal', Thèse de Doctorat, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1974, and D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'L'enjeu politique de la Wolofisation', in Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire de Bordeaux, Année Africaine 1979, Paris: Pedone, pp. 319-35.
15. See F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire: étude statistique', Dakar: Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 1965. The main findings of this survey, of languages spoken by primary schoolchildren (and their parents) in 1963-4, were also provided in a much shorter, undated pamphlet, 'L'expansion du Wolof au Sénégal', Dakar: CLAD, n.d. This 1963-4 survey covered 360 state primary schools from all the regions of Senegal - 35,434 pupils. The questionnaire distributed in the schools asked, for each pupil, mother's language, father's language, first language spoken in the home, other languages spoken by the pupil; see also Francine Kane, 'Sociologie des langues au Sénégal', Thèse de Doctorat, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1974, and D. B. Cruise O'Brien, 'L'enjeu politique de la Wolofisation', in Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire de Bordeaux, Année Africaine 1979, Paris: Pedone, pp. 319-35.
16. Swigart, 'Practice and perception: language use and attitudes in Dakar', Ph.D. Thesis (Anthropology), University of Washington, 1992, p. 80.
17. Bayart, The State in Africa, 'Part Two: Scenarios in the pursuit of hegemony', pp. 119-204.
18. Ibid., pp. 150-79.
19. C. Myers-Scotton, 'Elite closure as boundary maintenance: the case of Africa', in B. Weinstein (ed.), Language Policy and Political Development (Norwood, NY, 1990).
20. Swigart, 'Practice and perception', p. 280. See also P. Dumont, Le français et les langues parlées au Sénégal (Paris, 1983).
21. Swigart, 'Practice and perception', p. 280. See also P. Dumont, Le français et les langues parlées au Sénégal (Paris, 1983).
22. L. Swigart, 'Cultural Creolisation and language use in post-colonial Africa: the case of Senegal', in Africa 64, 2 (1994), 176.
23. Ibid., 179-80.
24. Ibid., 181; see also Mamadou Ndiaye, 'Le Wolofanglais: interlect des teenagers des villes du Senegal', paper to West African Research Association, Conference on 'West Africa and the Global Challenge', Dakar, 22-28 June 1997, Session 'Langues et Sociétés du Sahel', 25 June 1997.
25. Ibid., 181; see also Mamadou Ndiaye, 'Le Wolofanglais: interlect des teenagers des villes du Senegal', paper to West African Research Association, Conference on 'West Africa and the Global Challenge', Dakar, 22-28 June 1997, Session 'Langues et Sociétés du Sahel', 25 June 1997.
26. For a bleak enough assessment see G. Duruflé, Le Senegal peut-il sortir de la crise? (Paris, 1994).
27. Das Gupta, 'Ethnicity, language demands', p. 479.
28. Ibid., p. 482.
29. Ibid., p. 485.
30. L. H. Fuchs, The American Kaleidoscope. Race, ethnicity and the civic culture (Hanover and London, 1990), especially ch. 24, 'Respecting diversity, promoting unity: the language issue', pp. 458-73.
31. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, p. 51.
32. Swigart, 'Practice and perception', p. 268.
33. Ethnic census figures are provided in Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, p. 48.
34. Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 'L'Expansion du Wolof au Sénégal', undated pamphlet, p. 10.
35. Ibid., p. 12.
36. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, p. 51.
37. Swigart, 'Practice and perception', p. 80.
38. Musings of Thierno Sow, Touba, March 1975.
39. A. Cohen, Custom and Politics in Urban Africa. A study of Hausa migrants in Yoruba towns (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969).
40. Swigart, 'Practice and perception' p. 265 for 'they code'/'we code' distinction, comparing with English and Spanish as used by Hispanics in the USA.
41. R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting for national development. The case of Senegal' (London: International Broadcasting Institute, 1975) (Roneo). R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting professionalism in Senegal' in F. Ugboajah (ed.), Mass Communication, Culture and Society in West Africa (Oxford, 1985). Independent commercial radio, introduced in Dakar in the 1990s, furthers the cause of Wolofisation. Advertisers prefer Urban Wolof, which reaches the largest audience. L. Swigart, 'Language and legitimacy in Senegalese advertising', paper to Conference of West African Research Association, Dakar, 25 June 1997.
42. R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting for national development. The case of Senegal' (London: International Broadcasting Institute, 1975) (Roneo). R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting professionalism in Senegal' in F. Ugboajah (ed.), Mass Communication, Culture and Society in West Africa (Oxford, 1985). Independent commercial radio, introduced in Dakar in the 1990s, furthers the cause of Wolofisation. Advertisers prefer Urban Wolof, which reaches the largest audience. L. Swigart, 'Language and legitimacy in Senegalese advertising', paper to Conference of West African Research Association, Dakar, 25 June 1997.
43. R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting for national development. The case of Senegal' (London: International Broadcasting Institute, 1975) (Roneo). R. Cruise O'Brien, 'Broadcasting professionalism in Senegal' in F. Ugboajah (ed.), Mass Communication, Culture and Society in West Africa (Oxford, 1985). Independent commercial radio, introduced in Dakar in the 1990s, furthers the cause of Wolofisation. Advertisers prefer Urban Wolof, which reaches the largest audience. L. Swigart, 'Language and legitimacy in Senegalese advertising', paper to Conference of West African Research Association, Dakar, 25 June 1997.
44. Figures cited in F. Schaffer, 'Demokaraasi in Africa. What Wolof political concepts teach us about how to study democracy', Ph.D. thesis, University of California at Berkeley (Political Science) 1994, p. 109.
45. Doudou Diop in interview, Office de Radiodiffusion et Télévision du Sénégal, Dakar, March 1975.
46. Cheikh Anta Diop, Nations nègres et culture (Paris, 1995 [1964]); L'Afrique noire précoloniale (Paris, 1960); L'Antériorité des civilisations nègres. Mythe ou vérité historique? (Paris, 1967).
47. Cheikh Anta Diop, Nations nègres et culture (Paris, 1995 [1964]); L'Afrique noire précoloniale (Paris, 1960); L'Antériorité des civilisations nègres. Mythe ou vérité historique? (Paris, 1967).
48. Cheikh Anta Diop, Nations nègres et culture (Paris, 1995 [1964]); L'Afrique noire précoloniale (Paris, 1960); L'Antériorité des civilisations nègres. Mythe ou vérité historique? (Paris, 1967).
49. When interviewed in Dakar over a period from January to April 1975.
50. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, pp. 81-7.
51. For an excellent biography see J. Vaillant, Black, French and African. A biography of Leopold Sedar Senghor (Cambridge, MA, 1990).
52. Décret assurant le découpage des mots en Serer et en Wolof, nos. 75-1025/6 in Journal Officiel de la République du Sénégal, 8 Nov. 1975.
53. See A. Fall, R. Santos and J. Doneux, Dictionnaire Wolof-Français, suivi d'un Index Français-Wolof (Paris, 1990) p. 336), also J. L. Diouf and M. Yaguello, J' apprends le Wolof (Paris, 1991) (a manual for school use).
54. See A. Fall, R. Santos and J. Doneux, Dictionnaire Wolof-Français, suivi d'un Index Français-Wolof (Paris, 1990) p. 336), also J. L. Diouf and M. Yaguello, J' apprends le Wolof (Paris, 1991) (a manual for school use).
55. See D. Darbon, 'Le culturalisme Bas-Casamançais', in Politique Africaine 14 (June 1983), 125-8; also O. Linaires, Power, Prayer and Production. The Jola of Casamance, Senegal (Cambridge, 1992).
56. See D. Darbon, 'Le culturalisme Bas-Casamançais', in Politique Africaine 14 (June 1983), 125-8; also O. Linaires, Power, Prayer and Production. The Jola of Casamance, Senegal (Cambridge, 1992).
57. P. Fougeyrollas, 'L'Enseignement du Français au Service de la Nation Sénégalaise' (Dakar: Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar, 1967), p. 32.
58. Loi de la République du Sénégal, no. 77-55, 10 Apr. 1977, providing also for double penalties in case of a second offence.
59. Swigart, 'Cultural Creolisation and language use', p. 184. The prophesy of the linguist F. Wioland is relevant: 'Dakar Wolof has an irresistible socio-linguistic dynamic, it will come to dominate all of Senegal, as Parisian French has done through the ages.' F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire...', p. 5.
60. Swigart, 'Cultural Creolisation and language use', p. 184. The prophesy of the linguist F. Wioland is relevant: 'Dakar Wolof has an irresistible socio-linguistic dynamic, it will come to dominate all of Senegal, as Parisian French has done through the ages.' F. Wioland, 'Enquête sur les langues parlées au Sénégal par les élèves de l'enseignement primaire...', p. 5.
61. Swigart, 'Cultural Creolisation and language use', p. 185.
62. Swigart, 'Practice and perception', p. 106.
63. M. N. Ngallaso and A. Ricard, 'Des langues et des états', Politique Africaine 23 (1986).
64. C. Young and T. Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (Madison, WI, 1985), p. 155.
65. Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa, p. 127.
66. Ibid., p. 140.
67. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle, 'Uganda: the advent of no-party democracy', in J. A. Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London and New York, 1995), pp. 145-6.
68. Cited in Swigart, 'Cultural Creolisation and language use', p. 179.
69. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, p. 83.