Gender, science, and scientific organizations in Germany

Minerva

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 175-201

  Fuchs, Stefan ^a   Von Stebut, Janina ^a   Allmendinger, Jutta ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0242454560     PISSN: 00264695     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1010380510013     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. For example in Europe: European Commission (ed.), Mitteilung der Kommission 'Frauen und Wissenschaft'. Mobilisierung der Frauen im Interesse der europäischen Forschung (European Commission: Brussels, 1999).
2. In Germany: Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), Förderung von Frauen im Dereich der Wissenschaft (Bonn: Materialien zur Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung, 1989);
3. Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), Förderung von Frauen im Bereich der Wissenschaft. Fortschreibung des Berichts aus dem Jahr 1989 (Bonn: Materialien zur Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung, 1996);
4. Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), Frauen in Führungspositionen. Dritte Ergänzung zum BLK-Bericht 'Förderung von Frauen im Bereich der Wissenschaft' (Bonn: Materialien zur Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung, 1999).
5. Wissenschaftsrat (ed.), Empfehlungen zur Chancengleichheit von Frauen in Wissenschaft und Forschung (Köln: Wissenschaftsrat, 1998).
6. Especially if women's advancement in higher education is considered as 'a valid indicator of the sociopolitical status of women in different societies'. See Paul Windolf, Expansion and Structural Change. Higher Education in Germany, the United States, and Japan, 1870-1990 (Boulder, Colorado: Westviev, 1997), xii.
7. See Heide M. Pfarr, 'Maßnahmen und Instrumente einer emanzipatorischen Gleichstellungspolitik auf dem Prüfstand', in Sabine Lang and Birgit Sauer (eds.), Wissenschaft als Arbeit - Arbeit als Wissenschaftlerin (Frankfurt a.M, New York: Campus, 1997), 57-66; see also Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), 1989, 1996, 1999, op. cit. note 1.
8. See European Commission, op. cit. note 1; concerning the United States and Germany see Stefan Fuchs, Gender Disparities in Higher Education and Academic Careers in Germany and the United States, Policy Report #7 (Washington, DC: American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University, 1999).
9. Paul Windolf, Expansion and Structural Change. Higher Education in Germany, the United States, and Japan, 1870-1990 op. cit. note 2, 170.
10. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, Persistent Inequality. Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 21.
11. Suzanne Stiver Lie, Linda Malik, and Duncan Harris (eds.), The Gender Gap in Higher Education. World Yearbook of Education, 1994 (London, Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 1994), 206-213.
12. Edelgard Bulmahn, 'Women in Science in Germany', Science, 286, (1999), 2081.
13. 'Plea for female academics in Germany', Nature, 393, (1998), 402.
14. Germany's Federal Minister for Science and Education, Edelgard Bulmahn described the current situation of women in science in Germany as 'completely unsatisfactory'. Bernd Wirsing, Public Relations Officer of the Max Planck Society, called it 'a shame'; and Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker, President of the German Research Foundation DFG, described the situation as 'horrifying' ('Frauen in der Wissenschaft. Karriere im Gegenwind.' Die Zeit, 48, (1999), 42;
15. 'Von Fischen und Frauen', Die Zeit, 2, (2000), 25.
16. In Germany, for every 100 male university graduates there are only 78 females. Among all EU member countries, the ratio was highest in Finland (100: 141 females), Sweden (100: 134 females), and Spain (100: 129 females); see Christine Färber, 'Hochschulstrukturen und Frauenförderung in Frankreich und Deutschland', in Susanne Kleinert and Bernhard Kramann (eds.), Frauen in der Wissenschaft in Deutschland und Frankreich (Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 1999), 60.
17. Mary Osborn, 'Wissenschaftlerinnen in Deutschland und Europa', in Sabine Lang and Birgit Sauer (eds.), op. cit. note 3, 165-166. See also Wissenschaftsrat (ed.), op. cit. note 1.
18. In Germany, a mere 3.4% of all decision making top positions in non-university science were held by women in 1998 (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft: 4.2%, Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: 7.0%, Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft: 3.3%, and the Hermann von Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren: 1.7%; cf. Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), Frauen in Führungspositionen. Dritte Ergänzung zum BLK-Bericht 'Förderung von Frauen im Bereich der Wissenschaft', op. cit. note 1, 34).
19. Paul Windolf, op. cit. note 2, 74. For a brief overview see Susanne Grimm and Uta Meier, 'On the disparity of the sexes in German universities', in Suzanne Stiver Lie, Linda Malik and Duncan Harris (eds.), op. cit. note 7, 74-76.
20. Dorit Heinsohn, 'Energie, Entropie und die Frauenfrage in der Wissenschaft um 1900', in Britta L. Brehm, Gesa Heinrichs and Holger Tiedemann (eds.), Das Geschlecht der Bildung - Die Bildung der Geschlechter (Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 1999), 99-101.
21. See also Ilse Costas, 'Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche und das Verhältnis von Profession und Geschlecht', in Angelika Wetterer (ed.), Die soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1995), 121-138.
22. 'Amazonen sind auch auf geistigem Gebiet naturwidrig. Bei einzelnen praktischen Aufgaben, z.B. der Frauenheilkunde mögen die Verhältnisse vielleicht anders liegen. Im allgemeinen aber kann man nicht stark genug betonen, daß die Natur selbst der Frau ihren Beruf als Mutter und Hausfrau vorgeschrieben hat.' ['Amazons are unnatural on intellectual fields. The circumstances may probably differ concerning certain practical tasks, for instance women's medical science. In general, however, one can never emphasize strongly enough that nature itself dictated woman's occupation as mother and housewife.'] (Max Planck quoted in Dorit Heinsohn, 'Energie, Entropie und die Frauenfrage in der Wissenschaft um 1900', Die soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen op cit. note 14, 101; own translation).
23. Paul Windolf, op. cit. note 2, 51.
24. The development of female participation in the former GDR warrants another study. For a brief comparative overview, see Susanne Grimm and Uta Meier, op. cit. note 13.
25. With respect to labour market supply issues it is often complained that German universities do not offer an intermediate degree such as the bachelor's degree in North America or the UK. It is argued that keeping students on the university track until the very end of their studies is blocking both labour market flexibility and individual preferences since not everybody is planning to enter the academic or scientific labour market, where professional education and experience are considered a necessary prerequisite. See Heike Solga, 'Differenzierte Hochschulen', Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 15, (1998), 20-30.
26. Patricia Gumport, 'Graduate Education: Comparative Perspectives', in Burton R. Clark and G. R. Naeve (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Higher Education. Volume 2: Analytical Perspectives (Oxford and New York: Pergamon, 1992), 1117-1127.
27. The professorial ranks in Germany are divided into two categories, the so-called C3 and C4 positions. C4 professors make up roughly one-third (12,700) of all C3 and C4 positions. The profile of their position is better than that of C3 professors in terms of material and personal resources. Although both groups of professors are tenured, C4 professors have a higher salary and more assistant positions assigned to them.
28. Wissenschaftsrat (ed.), op. cit. note 1, 59.
29. Ulrich Teichler (ed.), Das Hochschulwesen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Weinheim: Deutscher Studienverlag, 1990), 38.
30. Jürgen Enders, 'Berufsbild der Hochschullehrer', in Ulrich Teichler, Hans-Dieter Daniel and Jürgen Enders (eds.), Brennpunkt Hochschule. Neuere Analysen zu Hochschule, Beruf und Gesellschaft (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1998), 69.
31. Since 1992, including the former GDR states.
32. The percentages were 28% in 1975, and 35% in 1989; however the proportion of female professors was also very low in the former GDR: 3% in 1975, and 5% in 1989. See Susanne Grimm and Uta Meier, op. cit. note 13, 80-81.
33. Helga Adler argues that a cartel of predominantly male professors (Gestaltungseliten) made successful use of their ties and networks to establish the West-German academic and scientific structures in the aftermath of reunification, to the disadvantage of female academics and scientists. In sociology, for example, only one of twenty-four professors appointed in the former GDR between 1990 and 1993 was female. See Helga Adler, 'Gleichstellungspolitik. Ein nachgeordnetes Problem im Umstrukturierungsprozeß ostdeutscher Hochschulen?', in Sabine Lang and Birgit Sauer (eds.), op. cit. note 3, 68-69.
34. Statistisches Bundesamt, Hochschulstandort Deutschland, Serie Bildung und Kultur, Presseexemplar (Wiesbaden: Statistisches Bundesamt, 1999), 22 and 84.
35. This by no means exhaustive list should be further differentiated since it could be assumed that women often tend to be 'ghettoized' within certain academic disciplines i.e. they may be shunted to specific areas and topics, e.g., women in sociology are expected to specialize in gender issues.
36. Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973).
37. With regard to the general lack of theoretical and empirical interest in women's position in the scientific enterprise in Germany, Joas argued that the mainstream of research on science has been first and foremost preoccupied with the inner logic of epistemological progress. At the centre of attention has been the organization of science, the general and specific conditions for the production and continuous enlargement of knowledge. See Hans Joas, 'Die Benachteiligung der Frauen in der Wissenschaft', Die Neue Gesellschaft Frankfurter Hefte, 37, (1990), 239-244.
38. With regards to career success, the accumulation of advantages and scientific merit, see Jonathan R. Cole, 'Women in Science', in D. N. Jackson and J. P. Rushton (eds.), Scientific Excellence. Origins and Assessment (Newbury Park: Sage, 1987), 359-375;
39. Harriet Zuckerman, 'Die Werdegänge von Nobelpreisträgem', in Peter-Hans Hofschneider and Karl Ulrich Mayer (eds.), Generationsdynamik und Innovation in der Grundlagenforschung (München: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 1990), 45-65;
40. Harriet Zuckerman, J. R. Cole, and J. T. Bruer (eds.), The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community (New York: Norton, 1991).
41. Concerning gender bias in the review system of scientific journals, see Christine Wenneras and Agnes Wold, 'Nepotism and Sexism in Peer-Review', Nature, 387, (1997);
42. Christine Wenneras and Agnes Wold, 'Nature, 341-343;
43. for measures and perception of scientific productivity, see, e.g., J. Scott Long and Mary Frank Fox, 'Scientific Careers: Universalism and Particularism', Annual Review of Sociology, 21, (1995), 45-71;
44. for 'gendered' selection, promotion, and tenure processes at academic and scientific institutions see, e.g., William G. Tierney and Estela Maria Bensimon, Promotion and Tenure. Community and Socialization in Academe (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996);
45. Virgina Valian, Why So Slow? The Advancement of Women (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1998), chapter 11.
46. Henry Etzkowitz, Carol Kemelgor, Michael Neuschatz, and Brian Uzzi, 'Barriers to Women's Participation in Academic Science and Engineering', in Willie Pearson and Alan Fechter (eds.), Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation (Baltimore/London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 43-67.
47. Gerhard Sonnert, Who Succeeds in Science? The Gender Dimension (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 8.
48. Research has underlined the complex and sequential character of 'gendered' careers in science. Schools have been found to short-change girls rather than boys in terms of educational aspirations, support and acknowledgement. A lack of institutional support and latent and manifest discrimination has been found to pattern women's experiences during high school, college, and university. See Elaine Seymour and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving. Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences (Boulder: Westview, 1997);
49. Sandra L. Hanson, Lost Talent: Women in the Sciences (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996);
50. The American Association of University Women, AAUW (ed.), How Schools Shortchange Girls (Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 1992).
51. This trend is prolonged during graduate education and doctor's degree studies: Women are granted less access to professional networks and invisible colleges, report a lack of mentoring and career support as well as a lack of availability of female role models. See Henry Etzkowitz, Carol Kemelgor, Michael Neuschatz, and Brian Uzzi, 'Athena Unbound: Barriers to Women in Academic Science and Engineering', Science and Public Policy, 19, (1992), 157-179;
52. Gerhard Sonnert and Gerald Holton, Gender Differences in Science Careers (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995);
53. Henry Etzkowitz, Carol Kemelgor and Brian Uzzi, Athena Unbound. The Advancement of Women in Science and Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
54. We cannot go into detail here for reasons of space. Interested readers should refer to the contributions in Angelika Wetterer (ed.), Profession und Geschlecht. Über die Marginalität von Frauen in hochqualifizierten Berufen (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1992);
55. Angelika Wetterer (ed.), Die soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen, op. cit. note 14;
56. Sabine Lang and Birgit Sauer (eds.), op. cit. note 3; and Aylâ Neusel and Angelika Wetterer (eds.), Vielfältige Verschiedenheiten. Geschlechterverhältnisse in Studium, Hochschule und Beruf (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1999).
57. Mechthild Brothun, 'Ursachen der Unterrepräsentanz von Frauen in universitären Spitzenpositionen', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 40, (1988), 316-336;
58. Corinna Onnen-Isemann and Ursula Oswald, 'Aufstiegsbarrieren für Frauen im Universitätsbereich', Schriftenreihe Studien zu Bildung und Wissenschaft (Bad Honnef: Bock, 1991);
59. Elke Geenen, Blockierte Karrieren. Frauen in der Hochschule (Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 1994);
60. Corinna Onnen-Isemann and Rosemarie Nave-Herz, 'Hindernisse beim Aufstieg', Unimagazin. Perspektiven für Beruf und Arbeitsmarkt, 2, (1996), 32-37;
61. Nicole Lehnert, Hannelore Faulstich-Wieland, Steffani Engler, Dorothea Pfeiffer, and Beate Illg, Männer, Frauen und Frauenförderung (Münster et al.: Waxman, 1998);
62. Christine Wimbauer, Organisation, Geschlecht, Karriere. Fallstudien aus einem Forschungsinstitut (Opladen: Leske + Budrich, 1999);
63. Karin Zimmermann, Spiele mit der Macht in der Wissenschaft. Paßfähigkeit und Geschlecht als Kriterium für Berufungen (Berlin: Edition Sigma, 2000).
64. In 1995, the Scientific Council (Wissenschaftlicher Rat) of the Max Planck Society initiated this ongoing project to examine the situation of, and find answers to the question of why there are so few women scientists in the MPS. See Paul Baltes, 'Förderung von Frauen in der Wissenschaft', in Sabine Lang and Birgit Sauer (eds.), op. cit. note 3, 317-326.
65. See, e.g., Rebecca L. Bach and Carolyn C. Perrucci, 'Organizational Influences on the Sex Composition of College and University Faculty. A Research Note', Sociology of Education, 57, (1984), 193-198;
66. Pamela S. Tolbert, 'Organizations and Inequality: Sources of Earning Differences between Male and Female Faculty', Sociology of Education, 59, (1986), 227-235;
67. Alison M. Konrad and Jeffrey Pfeffer, 'Understanding the Hiring of Women and Minorities in Educational Institutions', Sociology of Education, 64, (1991), 141-157;
68. Pamela S. Tolbert and Alica A. Oberfield, 'Sources of Organizational Demography: Faculty Sex Ratios in Colleges and Universities', Sociology of Education, 64, (1991), 305-315;
69. Stephen S. Kulis and Karen Miller-Loessi, 'Organizations, Labour Markets, and Gender Integration in Academic Sociology', Sociological Perspectives, 35, (1992), 93-117;
70. Stephen S. Kulis and Karen Miller-Loessi, 'Organizational Dynamics and Gender Equity. The Case of Sociology Departments in the Pacific Region', Work and Occupations, 19, (1992), 157-183.
71. See Jutta Allmendinger, Hannah Brückner, Janina von Stebut, and Stefan Fuchs, 'Die Integration von Frauen in die Wissenschaft - eine Echternacher Springprozession', in Karl-Siegbert Rehberg (ed.), Differenz und Integration. Die Zukunft moderner Gesellschaften (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1997), 537-544;
72. Jutta Allmendinger, Janina von Stebut, Stefan Fuchs, and Marion Hornung, 'Berufliche Werdegänge von Wissenschaftlerinnen in der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft', in INIFES, ISF, SÖSTRA (eds.), Erwerbsarbeit und Erwerbsbevölkerung im Wandel - Anpassungsprobleme einer alternden Gesellschaft (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1998), 143-152;
73. Jutta Allmendinger, Stefan Fuchs, and Janina von Stebut, 'Drehtüre oder Pater Noster? Zur Frage der Verzinsung der Integration in wissenschaftliche Organisationen im Verlauf beruflicher Werdegänge von Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftlern', in Claudia Honegger, Stefan Hradil and Franz Traxler (eds.), Grenzenlose Gesellschaft? (Frankfurt a.M., New York: Campus, 1999), 96-107;
74. Jutta Allmendinger, Janina von Stebut, Stefan Fuchs, and Hannah Bruckner, 'Eine Liga für sich? Berufliche Werdegänge von Wissenschaftlerinnen der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft' in Aylâ Neusel and Angelika Wetterer (eds.), op. cit. note 33, 193-220;
75. Jutta Allmendinger and Silke Aisenbrey, 'Mentoring in der Wissenschaft', Magazin/Bulletin der Universität/ETH Zürich, 3 (275), (1999), 22-24;
76. Jutta Allmendinger, Stefan Fuchs, Janina von Stebut, and Christine Wimbauer, 'Contested Terrain: Women in German Research Organizations', to appear in Walter R. Heinz, Helga Krüger, Victor Marshall, and Anil Vherma (eds.), Restructuring Work and the Life Cycle (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
77. With regards to the Max Planck Society, see also Beate Krais and Tanja Krumpeter, Wissenschaftskultur und weibliche Karrieren: Zur Unterrepräsentanz von Wissenschaftlerinnen in der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Darmstadt, Berlin: Projektbericht, 1997).
78. For a general discussion see Ursula Müller, 'Asymmetrische Geschlechterkonstruktionen in der Hochschule', in Ayl̂a Neusel and Angelika Wetterer (eds.), op. cit. note 33, 135-159;
79. Sünne Andresen, Maria Oppen, and Dagmar Simon, Karrieren und Barrieren im Wissenschaftsbetrieb. Geschlechterdifferenz als Ergebnis von Aushandlungsprozessen in Organisationen (Berlin: WZB Working Paper P99-601).
80. See, for example, Joan Acker, 'Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations', Gender & Society, 4, (1991), 139-158;
81. Amy S. Wharton, 'The Social Construction of Gender and Race in Organizations: A Social Identity and Group Mobilization Perspective', in Samuel B. Bacharach and Pamela S. Tolbert (eds.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (London, Greenwich: Jai Press, 1992), vol. 10, 55-84;
82. Fiona Wilson, 'Research Note: Organizational Theory: Blind and Deaf to Gender?', Organization Studies, 17, (1996), 825-842;
83. and Susan Halford, Mike Savage and Anne Witz, Gender, Careers and Organisations. Current Developments in Banking, Nursing and Local Government (London: Macmillan, 1997).
84. It should be noted that we are focusing on the 'core' of employed scientists - i.e. doctoral students and/or externally funded scientists are excluded from the statistics presented owing to lack of data.
85. In retrospect, the 1970s are considered a period of expansion in budget and staff - for instance when directors or professors were appointed - in German science throughout. No exception to the rule, the MPS granted tenured contracts more frequently, and tenured positions were easier to obtain than they are today.
86. Source: MPS personnel data; own calculations.
87. The range of career-relevant resources offered differs significantly between scientific organizations. Teaching, for instance, is only possible within universities while conditions and facilities for research are much better within the MPS or other non-university research organizations. Therefore, it is quite difficult for junior scientists to acquire the whole range of qualifications and experiences considered necessary to become a full professor without mobility. See Wissenschaftsrat (ed.), Empfehlungen zur Doktorandenausbildung und zur Förderung des Hochschullehrernachwuchses (Köln: Wissenschaftsrat, 1997).
88. The MPS does not have a formal policy in regard to gender discrimination in employment. However, the MPS and its institutes - like the universities - were mandated to establish an office for women's issues (Gleichstellungsbeauftragte), but it is only recently that these positions have begun to be filled. See Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (ed.), Förderung von Frauen im Bereich der Wissenschaft, op. cit. note 1. Their main duty is to report on the situation of women and women scientists, and to develop guidelines for their promotion. In addition, the MPS encourages women to apply for all open positions, has set up a committee on the situation of female scientists and how to improve it, and has initiated a programme aiming at an increase in the proportion of female scientists at the higher hierarchical level, such as heads of working groups (C3-Programm)
89. see Marlis Mirbach, Analyse der Beschäftigungssituation von Frauen und Männern in der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft 1998 (München: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 1999).
90. We obtained administrative, individual-level data, with information on age, gender, position and entry date of all scientists regularly employed in any one of the institutes between 1 January 1989 and 1 January 1995. Supplemental to this analysis, we chose nine Max Planck Institutes for study, selecting them according to scientific sector and, within each sector, according to size. Further selection criteria were the proportion of female scientists employed, turnover among institute directors, academic discipline, and field of study. See Jutta Allmendinger, Hannah Brückner, Janina von Stebut and Stefan Fuchs, 'Die Integration von Frauen in die Wissenschaft - eine Echternacher Springprozession', op. cit. note 37.
91. The data reported in the following were drawn from our survey of 252 Max Planck scientists, which included 95 female scientists (38%). This sample is highly selective since it only includes scientists who made it into the MPS. In addition, students were excluded from the survey, i.e. all respondents had at least started their PhD work at the MPS. We developed an extensive questionnaire for a mail survey of all female and male scientists employed at the nine selected Max Planck Institutes between 1989 and 1997. Our survey was also directed at those scientists who had already left these institutes by the end of 1997, which allowed us to study the careers of those scientists who successfully made it into the Max Planck Society as well as their career developments after voluntary or forced departures. The questionnaire included a number of retrospective questions concerning career and work history, family background, partnerships and children. We also collected information on their academic records (number and quality of publications, awards, academic networks), and asked questions on the working conditions at their respective Max Planck Institutes, e.g., on the gender composition of work groups, as well as on the assessment of the quantity and quality of mentoring by senior academic advisers. In addition, all scientists were asked to answer and rank a large number of statements and items with respect to their own careers and careers in science in general.
92. Jutta Allmendinger, Janina von Stebut, Stefan Fuchs and Marion Hornung, 'Berufliche Werdegänge von Wissenschaftlerinnen in der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft', op. cit. note 37.
93. We constructed an index (value range 0-8), listing those advisers as mentors who had scores of 6 and more. For missing values, we used median substitution; results based on estimations with and without substituted values were robust. According to this definition, few respondents had more than one scientific mentor within their working lives.
94. The questionnaire ascertained many occupational and scientific details from which we could determine whether respondents reported national or international work experiences before or after finishing their dissertations.
95. The 'external' mentor refers to any professor, director or senior scientific person working in a context other than the respondents during the period of the dissertation. We assume external advisers to be mentors with scores of 3 or more, as their support is supplementary to that of the internal mentor.
96. To address this question, we divided respondents into two groups, 'persisters' and 'switchers'. 'Persisters' are those who had already taken steps towards a scientific career, i.e. had at least finished their dissertations, and were on a science career track. In addition, this category includes persons, working on their dissertations, who planned to stay in science and report the availability of respective career opportunities. 'Switchers' are defined as those scientists who had already left the science pipeline to work in other fields, or had left science for family reasons. Moreover, this group included all those who planned to leave science when they finished their dissertations, as well as those who did not see further career opportunities in science. According to this definition, 'persisters' account for 64% of our sample, 'switchers' for 36%.
97. Other variables tested - e.g., scientific track record, or working in a group - showed no significant impact.
98. The marginal effect on the probability of an event changes with the values of the independent variable X and 'hence with the probability associated with the values of the Xs'. See Tim Futing Liao, Interpreting Probability Models (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994), 18. There is one problem, however, since strictly speaking there is no definition of the derivative of a function other than for continuous variables: derivations are 'not defined in principle for discrete variables such as a dummy variable with 0 and 1 values, although they can give a rough approximation of the marginal effect of a dummy variable in practice'.
99. Tim Futing Liao, Interpreting Probability Models Ibid. 19.
100. Controlling for the interaction between gender and both full and internal support in Model 3 did not yield statistically significant effects (not shown in Table II).
101. The part of our study presented here provides no analysis of the interplay between (scientific) work and family obligations. Among our respondents, female scientists with children did not disproportionately leave science. Although we found no indication that women are 'risky employees' because of child-bearing, we cannot rule out the possibility that (enforced) mobility from one organization to another results in stereotyping and statistical discrimination.
102. See, e.g. Christine Wimbauer, op. cit. note 34.
103. That 'feminization' and devaluation of jobs and work go hand in hand, for example concerning salary levels, has been well documented. See, for example, Barbara F. Reskin and Patricia A. Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues: Explaining Women's Inroads into Male Occupations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990);
104. see also the contributions in Paula J. Dubeck and Kathryn Borman (eds.), Women and Work (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 61-76;
105. Richard Anker, Gender and Jobs. Sex Segregation of Occupations in the World (Geneva: International Labour Organization, 1998).
106. Universities, vocational colleges ('Fachhochschulen'), and non-university research organizations such as the Max Planck Society or the Fraunhofer-Society among others.
107. Christine L. Williams, Still A Man's World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 9.