Victorian naturalists in China: Science and informal empire

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 1-26

  Fan, Fa Ti ^a  

^a BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CHINA; HISTORY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; UNITED KINGDOM; WAR;

CHINA; COLONIALISM; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; NATURAL HISTORY; WAR;

EID: 0242382562     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087402004910     Document Type: Review

References (209)

1. For a survey of Sino-Western relations in the nineteenth century, see John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols., Cambridge, 1978-80, x. W. H. Medhurst, The Foreigner in Far Cathay, London, 1872, discusses the three major groups of Western residents in China, excluding the working class, and their life in China. See also N. B. Dennys, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan: A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao, San Francisco, 1977 [1867]; P.D. Coates, The China Consuls, Oxford, 1988. For the literature on Protestant missionaries to China, see n. 4 below.
2. For a survey of Sino-Western relations in the nineteenth century, see John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols., Cambridge, 1978-80, x. W. H. Medhurst, The Foreigner in Far Cathay, London, 1872, discusses the three major groups of Western residents in China, excluding the working class, and their life in China. See also N. B. Dennys, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan: A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao, San Francisco, 1977 [1867]; P.D. Coates, The China Consuls, Oxford, 1988. For the literature on Protestant missionaries to China, see n. 4 below.
3. For a survey of Sino-Western relations in the nineteenth century, see John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols., Cambridge, 1978-80, x. W. H. Medhurst, The Foreigner in Far Cathay, London, 1872, discusses the three major groups of Western residents in China, excluding the working class, and their life in China. See also N. B. Dennys, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan: A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao, San Francisco, 1977 [1867]; P.D. Coates, The China Consuls, Oxford, 1988. For the literature on Protestant missionaries to China, see n. 4 below.
4. For a survey of Sino-Western relations in the nineteenth century, see John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu (eds.), The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols., Cambridge, 1978-80, x. W. H. Medhurst, The Foreigner in Far Cathay, London, 1872, discusses the three major groups of Western residents in China, excluding the working class, and their life in China. See also N. B. Dennys, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan: A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao, San Francisco, 1977 [1867]; P.D. Coates, The China Consuls, Oxford, 1988. For the literature on Protestant missionaries to China, see n. 4 below.
5. Fa-ti Fan, 'Science in a Chinese entrepot: British naturalists and their Chinese associates in Old Canton', Osiris (2003), 18 (forthcoming).
6. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
7. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
8. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
9. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
10. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
11. E.g. Lucile Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanical Gardens, New York, 1979; Donal P. McCracken, Gardens of Empire: Botanical Institutions of the Victorian British Empire, London, 1997; Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800, Cambridge, 1995; Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, New Haven, 2000; Daniel Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940, Oxford, 1988, 209-58; William Kelleher Storey, Science and Power in Colonial Mauritius, Rochester, 1997.
12. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
13. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
14. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
15. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
16. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
17. For basic accounts of these institutions, see Coates, op. cit. (1); Stanley Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast, 1950; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China, Taipei, 1966 [1929]; Paul Cohen, 'Christian missions and their impact to 1900', in Fairbank and Liu, op. cit. (1), 543-90; D. A. Griffiths and S. P. Lau, 'The Hong Kong Botanical Gardens: a historical overview', Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1986), 26, 55-77.
18. Jürgen Ostenhammel, 'Britain and China', in The Oxford History of The British Empire: The Nineteenth Century (ed. Andrew Porter), Oxford, 1999, 146-69, 156.
19. Ostenhammel, op. cit. (5), 156.
20. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
21. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
22. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
23. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
24. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
25. On information technologies and imperialism and colonialism, see e.g. C. A. Bayly's Empire of Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870, New York, 1996; Matthew H. Edney, Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843, Chicago, 1997; Richard Drayton, 'Knowledge and Empire", in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Eighteenth Century (ed. P. J. Marshall), Oxford, 1998, 321-52; David Ludden, 'Orientalist empiricism: transformations of colonial knowledge', in Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (ed. Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer), Philadelphia, 1993, 250-78; Arjun Appadurai, 'Number in the colonial imagination', in ibid., 314-39; Deepak Kumar, Science and the Raj, 1857-1905, Delhi, 1997, Chapter 3.
26. Keith Sinclair (ed.), A Soldier's View of Empire: The Reminiscences of James Bodell, 1831-92, London, 1982, 58.
27. Grove, op. cit. (3), Chapters 5-8.
28. Kew Gardens Archives (henceforth 'Kew'), Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 2-19.
29. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 28-30; Public Records Office (Hong Kong), CO 129/189, 129/190.
30. Edward Kynaston, A Man on Edge: A Life of Baron Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, London, 1981, 269-73, 280-92.
31. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (850); Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 67-8.
32. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (850); Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 67-8.
33. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (546), (550), (551), (850).
34. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 40-3.
35. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (551), (198-9).
36. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 108.
37. Kew, op. cit. (17).
38. Kew, op. cit. (17).
39. Kew, op. cit. (17).
40. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 109-10.
41. Kew, op. cit. (21).
42. Kew, op. cit. (21).
43. Kew, op. cit. (21), original emphasis. It is worth noting that Hooker and his scientific allies had just won a bitter controversy with the British government about the primary objective of Kew Gardens. The controversy was more or less parallel to and must have had some impact on the controversy concerning the Hong Kong Botanic Gardens. See, e.g., Ray Desmond, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanical Gardens, London, 1995, 223-50; R. M. MacLeod. 'The Ayrton incident: a commentary on the relations of science and government in England, 1870-73', in Science and Values (ed. Arnold Thackray and Everett Mendelsohn), New York, 1974, 45-78.
44. Kew, op. cit. (21), original emphasis. It is worth noting that Hooker and his scientific allies had just won a bitter controversy with the British government about the primary objective of Kew Gardens. The controversy was more or less parallel to and must have had some impact on the controversy concerning the Hong Kong Botanic Gardens. See, e.g., Ray Desmond, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanical Gardens, London, 1995, 223-50; R. M. MacLeod. 'The Ayrton incident: a commentary on the relations of science and government in England, 1870-73', in Science and Values (ed. Arnold Thackray and Everett Mendelsohn), New York, 1974, 45-78.
45. Kew, op. cit. (21), original emphasis. It is worth noting that Hooker and his scientific allies had just won a bitter controversy with the British government about the primary objective of Kew Gardens. The controversy was more or less parallel to and must have had some impact on the controversy concerning the Hong Kong Botanic Gardens. See, e.g., Ray Desmond, Kew: The History of the Royal Botanical Gardens, London, 1995, 223-50; R. M. MacLeod. 'The Ayrton incident: a commentary on the relations of science and government in England, 1870-73', in Science and Values (ed. Arnold Thackray and Everett Mendelsohn), New York, 1974, 45-78.
46. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, f. 111.
47. Public Records Office (Hong Kong), CO 129/217, 129/218.
48. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (273-4). See also 150 (228-9), (247), (399-401).
49. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (546), (550).
50. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (193), (239-40), (268-69); Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 95-6.
51. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (193), (239-40), (268-69); Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.41, Hong Kong, Botanic Gardens, 1870-1915, ff. 95-6.
52. Coates, op. cit. (1), 201-3. Kew, Misc. Report, 4.4, China, Hance, 2-4.
53. Coates, op. cit. (1), 201-3. Kew, Misc. Report, 4.4, China, Hance, 2-4.
54. Apparently, he had learned some botany before coming to China. See DNB, vol. 8, 1156.
55. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (531).
56. Basic biographic facts of Hance can be found in Gardeners Chronicle, 14 August 1886, 218-19; Hongkong Daily Press, 26 and 28 June 1886; E. Bretschneider, History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1962 [1898], 365-70, 632-52; DNB, vol. 8, 1156-7. He received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Giessen (Germany) in 1849.
57. Basic biographic facts of Hance can be found in Gardeners Chronicle, 14 August 1886, 218-19; Hongkong Daily Press, 26 and 28 June 1886; E. Bretschneider, History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1962 [1898], 365-70, 632-52; DNB, vol. 8, 1156-7. He received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Giessen (Germany) in 1849.
58. Basic biographic facts of Hance can be found in Gardeners Chronicle, 14 August 1886, 218-19; Hongkong Daily Press, 26 and 28 June 1886; E. Bretschneider, History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1962 [1898], 365-70, 632-52; DNB, vol. 8, 1156-7. He received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Giessen (Germany) in 1849.
59. Basic biographic facts of Hance can be found in Gardeners Chronicle, 14 August 1886, 218-19; Hongkong Daily Press, 26 and 28 June 1886; E. Bretschneider, History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1962 [1898], 365-70, 632-52; DNB, vol. 8, 1156-7. He received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Giessen (Germany) in 1849.
60. Kew, Bentham Correspondence, 5 (1768-9)
61. See, for example, George Bentham, Florae Hongkongensis: A Description of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of the Island of Hongkong, London, 1861, and Henry Hance's 'Supplement' (1871).
62. Comments on Hance's personality can be found in, for example, School of Oriental and African Studies (henceforth 'SOAS'), Chaloner Alabaster Papers, MS 380451/2, entry under 2 January; MS 380451/3, entry under 1 June; E. H. Parker, 'Henry Fletcher Hance', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1886), n.s., 21, 309-13. See also Francis Forbes's letter to J. D. Hooker in Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Hance, ff. 23-5, and Thomas Wade's letter in the same volume, f. 26.
63. Comments on Hance's personality can be found in, for example, School of Oriental and African Studies (henceforth 'SOAS'), Chaloner Alabaster Papers, MS 380451/2, entry under 2 January; MS 380451/3, entry under 1 June; E. H. Parker, 'Henry Fletcher Hance', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1886), n.s., 21, 309-13. See also Francis Forbes's letter to J. D. Hooker in Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Hance, ff. 23-5, and Thomas Wade's letter in the same volume, f. 26.
64. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Hance, ff. 2-4, ff. 127-37.
65. Kew, Bentham Correspondence, 5 (1768-9), (1770-2), (1773-5), (1780-6), (1790).
66. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 661-78. See also Hance's letters to Swinhoe in Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Richard Oldham (120), (122).
67. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 661-78. See also Hance's letters to Swinhoe in Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Richard Oldham (120), (122).
68. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (475).
69. See e.g. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 652-61 ;Hance's letters to J. D. Hooker, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (493), (514-15), (519); Sampson to Thiselton-Dyer, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (928); Hance to Swinhoe, Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Oldham (120). See also Hance's letters to Daniel Hanbury in Royal Pharmaceutical Society (henceforth 'RPS')s Hanbury Papers, P313 [3], [32].
70. See e.g. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 652-61 ;Hance's letters to J. D. Hooker, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (493), (514-15), (519); Sampson to Thiselton-Dyer, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (928); Hance to Swinhoe, Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Oldham (120). See also Hance's letters to Daniel Hanbury in Royal Pharmaceutical Society (henceforth 'RPS')s Hanbury Papers, P313 [3], [32].
71. See e.g. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 652-61 ;Hance's letters to J. D. Hooker, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (493), (514-15), (519); Sampson to Thiselton-Dyer, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (928); Hance to Swinhoe, Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Oldham (120). See also Hance's letters to Daniel Hanbury in Royal Pharmaceutical Society (henceforth 'RPS')s Hanbury Papers, P313 [3], [32].
72. See e.g. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 652-61 ;Hance's letters to J. D. Hooker, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (493), (514-15), (519); Sampson to Thiselton-Dyer, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (928); Hance to Swinhoe, Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Oldham (120). See also Hance's letters to Daniel Hanbury in Royal Pharmaceutical Society (henceforth 'RPS')s Hanbury Papers, P313 [3], [32].
73. See e.g. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 652-61 ;Hance's letters to J. D. Hooker, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (493), (514-15), (519); Sampson to Thiselton-Dyer, Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters 151 (928); Hance to Swinhoe, Kew, Kew Collectors IV, Oldham (120). See also Hance's letters to Daniel Hanbury in Royal Pharmaceutical Society (henceforth 'RPS')s Hanbury Papers, P313 [3], [32].
74. See E. H. Parker, 'Henry Fletcher Hance', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1886), n.s., 21, 309-13.
75. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, 'Historical notes', in F. B. Forbes and W. B. Hemsley, Index Florae Sinensis (1905), pp. v-xi. See also Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Index Florae Sinensis, 1883-1905.
76. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, 'Historical notes', in F. B. Forbes and W. B. Hemsley, Index Florae Sinensis (1905), pp. v-xi. See also Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Index Florae Sinensis, 1883-1905.
77. E. Bretschneider, On Chinese Silkworm Trees, Peking, 1881, 1; idem, Notes on Some Botanical Questions Connected with the Export Trade of China, Peking, 1880, 14. See also Hance's letters in RPS, Hanbury Papers, PH313 [20], PH313 [24].
78. E. Bretschneider, On Chinese Silkworm Trees, Peking, 1881, 1; idem, Notes on Some Botanical Questions Connected with the Export Trade of China, Peking, 1880, 14. See also Hance's letters in RPS, Hanbury Papers, PH313 [20], PH313 [24].
79. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Hance, ff. 11, 75, 87.
80. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (531).
81. On the efforts to obtain promotion for Hance, see Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Hance, 1882-8, ff. 1-5, 23-5, 49.
82. Kew, Directors Correspondence, Chinese Letters, 57 (73)-(77).
83. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Economic Products, I, ff. 229-30.
84. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (574-5). See also Ford's letters to Kew, 150 (217-18), 150 (221).
85. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (574-5).
86. The consular officers and the consular establishments in China are conveniently listed in Coates, op. cit. (1), 489-90.
87. Stanley F. Wright, op. cit. (4) and the explanatory essays in Katherine F. Brunner, John K. Fairbank and Richard J. Smith (eds.), Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals, 1854-1863, Cambridge, MA, 1986, and idem, Robert Hart and China's Early Modernization; Robert Hart's Journals, 1863-1866, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
88. Stanley F. Wright, op. cit. (4) and the explanatory essays in Katherine F. Brunner, John K. Fairbank and Richard J. Smith (eds.), Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals, 1854-1863, Cambridge, MA, 1986, and idem, Robert Hart and China's Early Modernization; Robert Hart's Journals, 1863-1866, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
89. Stanley F. Wright, op. cit. (4) and the explanatory essays in Katherine F. Brunner, John K. Fairbank and Richard J. Smith (eds.), Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals, 1854-1863, Cambridge, MA, 1986, and idem, Robert Hart and China's Early Modernization; Robert Hart's Journals, 1863-1866, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
90. Wu Chouyi, Qingmo Shanghai zujie shehui (The Society of Foreign Concessions in Late Qing Shanghai), Taipei, 1978, 55.
91. Coates, op. cit. (1), 76-80; Wright, op. cit. (4), 260-71. See also Hart's journals cited above and John King Fairbank, K. F. Bruner and E. M. Matheson (eds.), The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907, 2 vols., Cambridge, MA, 1975.
92. Coates, op. cit. (1), 76-80; Wright, op. cit. (4), 260-71. See also Hart's journals cited above and John King Fairbank, K. F. Bruner and E. M. Matheson (eds.), The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907, 2 vols., Cambridge, MA, 1975.
93. Coates, op. cit. (1), 76-80; Wright, op. cit. (4), 260-71. See also Hart's journals cited above and John King Fairbank, K. F. Bruner and E. M. Matheson (eds.), The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907, 2 vols., Cambridge, MA, 1975.
94. Robert Fynn, British Consuls Abroad: Their Origin, Rank and Privileges, Duties, Jurisdiction and Emoluments, London, 1846, 30-1 describes the basic personnel structure of the China consulates, which would greatly expand in the rest of the century.
95. As a contemporary witness, Bretschneider knew well this fact. See Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631.
96. One of the criteria for the entrants was 'a public-school and something beyond'. See Coates, op. cit. (1), 78. On botany in school education, see e.g. David Layron, Science and the People: The Origins of the School Science Curriculum in England, London, 1973, Chapter 3.
97. One of the criteria for the entrants was 'a public-school and something beyond'. See Coates, op. cit. (1), 78. On botany in school education, see e.g. David Layron, Science and the People: The Origins of the School Science Curriculum in England, London, 1973, Chapter 3.
98. Coates, op. cit. (1), 98; SOAS, Chaloner Alabaster Papers, Diary 1, MS 380451/1, 18, 19, 28 October 1855, etc. ; Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (875-9); SOAS, Bowra papers, MS English, 201813, Box 2, No. 7, Diary for 1863, July 18.
99. Coates, op. cit. (1), 98; SOAS, Chaloner Alabaster Papers, Diary 1, MS 380451/1, 18, 19, 28 October 1855, etc. ; Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (875-9); SOAS, Bowra papers, MS English, 201813, Box 2, No. 7, Diary for 1863, July 18.
100. Robert Swinhoe, 'Ornithological ramble in Foochow, in December 1861', Ibis (1862), 4, 257.
101. Kew, Augustine Henry, Letters to H. B. Morse, 1893-1909, ff. 3-5; 7-9; 10-12; 17-18; 19; 29; 34-5. See also John King Fairbank, Martha Henderson Coolidge and Richard J. Smith, H. B. Morse: Customs Commissioner and Historians of China, Lexington, KY, 1995, 117-18.
102. Kew, Augustine Henry, Letters to H. B. Morse, 1893-1909, ff. 3-5; 7-9; 10-12; 17-18; 19; 29; 34-5. See also John King Fairbank, Martha Henderson Coolidge and Richard J. Smith, H. B. Morse: Customs Commissioner and Historians of China, Lexington, KY, 1995, 117-18.
103. These were daily routines of Augustine Henry and his colleagues in Ichang. See his diaries in National Botanical Garden, Ireland (henceforth 'NBG'), Augustine Henry papers, 582.095. Henry's other motivation for studying botany was his growing interest in Chinese materia medica.
104. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (470-2). See also 151 (475), (476), (481). On Hooker's scientific travels, see Ray Desmond, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker: Traveller and Plant Collector, Woodbridge, 1999. For science and mountaineering, see Bruce Hevly, 'The heroic science of glacier motion', in Osiris (1996), 11, 66-86. Peter Hansen discusses mountaineering and masculine imperialism in his 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the invention of mountaineering in mid-Victorian Britain', Journal of British Studies (1995), 34, 300-24.
105. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (470-2). See also 151 (475), (476), (481). On Hooker's scientific travels, see Ray Desmond, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker: Traveller and Plant Collector, Woodbridge, 1999. For science and mountaineering, see Bruce Hevly, 'The heroic science of glacier motion', in Osiris (1996), 11, 66-86. Peter Hansen discusses mountaineering and masculine imperialism in his 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the invention of mountaineering in mid-Victorian Britain', Journal of British Studies (1995), 34, 300-24.
106. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (470-2). See also 151 (475), (476), (481). On Hooker's scientific travels, see Ray Desmond, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker: Traveller and Plant Collector, Woodbridge, 1999. For science and mountaineering, see Bruce Hevly, 'The heroic science of glacier motion', in Osiris (1996), 11, 66-86. Peter Hansen discusses mountaineering and masculine imperialism in his 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the invention of mountaineering in mid-Victorian Britain', Journal of British Studies (1995), 34, 300-24.
107. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (470-2). See also 151 (475), (476), (481). On Hooker's scientific travels, see Ray Desmond, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker: Traveller and Plant Collector, Woodbridge, 1999. For science and mountaineering, see Bruce Hevly, 'The heroic science of glacier motion', in Osiris (1996), 11, 66-86. Peter Hansen discusses mountaineering and masculine imperialism in his 'Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the invention of mountaineering in mid-Victorian Britain', Journal of British Studies (1995), 34, 300-24.
108. Hancock's intense interest in natural history can be seen in his 'Notes on the physical geography, flora, fauna, etc., of northern Formosa, with comparisons between that district and Hainan and other parts of China', which was attached to his Tamsui Trade Report for the Year 1881, Tamsui, 1882. Ibid., 31-8, describes his encounter with the aborigines. Robert Swinhoe, Notes on the Ethnology of Formosa, London, 1863.
109. Hancock's intense interest in natural history can be seen in his 'Notes on the physical geography, flora, fauna, etc., of northern Formosa, with comparisons between that district and Hainan and other parts of China', which was attached to his Tamsui Trade Report for the Year 1881, Tamsui, 1882. Ibid., 31-8, describes his encounter with the aborigines. Robert Swinhoe, Notes on the Ethnology of Formosa, London, 1863.
110. Hancock's intense interest in natural history can be seen in his 'Notes on the physical geography, flora, fauna, etc., of northern Formosa, with comparisons between that district and Hainan and other parts of China', which was attached to his Tamsui Trade Report for the Year 1881, Tamsui, 1882. Ibid., 31-8, describes his encounter with the aborigines. Robert Swinhoe, Notes on the Ethnology of Formosa, London, 1863.
111. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
112. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
113. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
114. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
115. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
116. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
117. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (471). See also 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the Year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, p. xxiv; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 631. In addition to the annual reports from the various ports, the Chinese Maritime Customs also published special series concerning scientific subjects, e.g. List of Chinese Medicines. China. Imperial Maritime Customs, III, Miscellaneous Series, No. 17, Shanghai, The Statistical Department of the Inspector General of Customs, 1889; An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service from 1871 to 1882, London, 1884; Silk, China. Imperial Maritime Customs, II. Special Series: No. 3, Shanghai, Department of the Inspectorate General, 1881; Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspector General, 1883.
118. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (596-7), (621), (627), (629).
119. Hart was quite conscientious about his role as an employee of the Chinese government and required his subordinates to be the same, though conflicting feelings and interests were sometimes inevitable. For the details, see Hart's journals and letters cited above and Wright, op. cit. (4), 261-2.
120. Henry to C. S. Sargent, 10 May 1899, NBG, Augustine Henry Papers, in the file 'C. S. Sargent'.
121. Natural History Museum of London (henceforth 'NHML'), Curator of Mammals, Correspondence, DF232/6, f. 512; G. A. Boulenger, 'On a collection of reptiles and batrachians made by Mr. J. D. La Touche in N.W. Fokien, China', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1899), 161.
122. Natural History Museum of London (henceforth 'NHML'), Curator of Mammals, Correspondence, DF232/6, f. 512; G. A. Boulenger, 'On a collection of reptiles and batrachians made by Mr. J. D. La Touche in N.W. Fokien, China', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1899), 161.
123. Copies of Kew's applications to the Foreign Office for assistance and replies from the China consuls are collected in Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Foods, Medicines, & Woods, 1869-1914; Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Economic Products, I; Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Economic Products, II; Misc. Reports 4.4, China & Tibet, Misc. 1861-1924; Misc. Reports, 4.4 China, Economic Products, Insect White Wax; Kew, Misc. Reports, China, Plant Collections, Cultural Products, etc. 1853-1914.
124. Philip B. Hall, 'Robert Swinhoe (1836-77), FRS, FZS, FRGS: a Victorian naturalist in Treaty Port China', The Geographical Journal (1987), 153, 37-47.
125. Not surprisingly, some transfers could work against natural historical research. William Hancock was posted to Hankow in 1890 and he complained that during 'fifteen years residence in China' he has never resided in 'a more uninteresting & (botanically) unproductive region than Hankow'. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (481). But at a time when so much of the flora and fauna of China remained unknown, new moves usually meant good opportunities.
126. Kew, Kew Collectors, Oldham, 1861-4, IV, ff. 33-6.
127. For Swinhoe's scientific research in Taiwan see Zhang Yuteng, 'Yingguo bowuxuejia Shiwenhou zai Taiwan de zilanshi diaocha jingguo ji xiangguan shiliao', (The natural historical research of British naturalists Swinhoe in Taiwan and related historical material), Taiwan shi yanjiu (1993), 1, 132-51.
128. Brunner, Fairbank and Smith, Robert Hart and China's Early Modernization, op. cit. (53), 256.
129. Robert Swinhoe, 'On the White Stork of Japan', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1873), 512-14.
130. Robert Swinhoe, 'On Chinese deer, with the description of an apparently new species ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1873), 574. Kopsen was also similarly rewarded for sending Swinhoe bird specimens. See e.g. R. Swinhoe, 'On a new species of Nettapus (Cotton-Teal) from the River Yangtze, China', Annals and Magazines of Natural History (1873), sr. 4, 11, 15-17.
131. Robert Swinhoe, 'On Chinese deer, with the description of an apparently new species ', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1873), 574. Kopsen was also similarly rewarded for sending Swinhoe bird specimens. See e.g. R. Swinhoe, 'On a new species of Nettapus (Cotton-Teal) from the River Yangtze, China', Annals and Magazines of Natural History (1873), sr. 4, 11, 15-17.
132. NHML, Z. Keeper's Archives, 1.8, Letters, 1858-75, SM-Z, No. 284.
133. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 151 (138), (142-3).
134. George Busk, 'Notes on the cranial and dental characters of the northern and southern tigers and leopards of China as affording marks of their specific distribution', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1874), 146-50.
135. Robert Swinhoe, 'On the mammals of the island of Formosa', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1862), 347-65, 351.
136. Swinhoe, op. cit. (81), 362.
137. Henry Hance, 'On the source of the China root of commerce', The Journal of Botany, British and Foreign (i.e. Seemann's Journal of Botany) (1872), 10, 102-3.
138. E. Bretschneider, Notes on Some Botanical Questions Connected with the Export Trade of China, Peking, 1880.
139. E. Bretschneider, 'Botanicon Sinicum: notes on Chinese botany from native and western sources, Part III', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1895), 29, 11-12; idem, On Chinese Silkworm Trees, Peking, 1881, 1-2. See also idem, op. cit. (84), 1.
140. E. Bretschneider, 'Botanicon Sinicum: notes on Chinese botany from native and western sources, Part III', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1895), 29, 11-12; idem, On Chinese Silkworm Trees, Peking, 1881, 1-2. See also idem, op. cit. (84), 1.
141. E. Bretschneider, 'Botanicon Sinicum: notes on Chinese botany from native and western sources, Part III', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1895), 29, 11-12; idem, On Chinese Silkworm Trees, Peking, 1881, 1-2. See also idem, op. cit. (84), 1.
142. Biographic information about these and many other French missionaries can be found in Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 824-929.
143. On the Xujiahui (i.e. Zikawei or Sicawei) station, see Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing Mission: Exact Science and French Overseas Expansion, 1830-1940, Baltimore, 1993, 155-206. It focuses on the observatory there.
144. Medhurst, op. cit. (1), 32-5; Armand David, Abbé David's Diary, Cambridge, MA, 1949, 193.
145. Medhurst, op. cit. (1), 32-5; Armand David, Abbé David's Diary, Cambridge, MA, 1949, 193.
146. On the China Inland Mission see Leslie T. Lyall, A Passion for the Impossible: The China Inland Mission, 1865-1965, London, 1965, and A. J. Broomhall, Hudson Taylor and China's Open Century, 7 vols., London, 1981-9.
147. On the China Inland Mission see Leslie T. Lyall, A Passion for the Impossible: The China Inland Mission, 1865-1965, London, 1965, and A. J. Broomhall, Hudson Taylor and China's Open Century, 7 vols., London, 1981-9.
148. NHML, Curator of Mammals, Correspondence, DF232/5, No. 234-5.
149. Of them Williams, McGowan, and Henry were American; Faber, German. The others were British. Basic biographic information about them can be found in Bretschneider, op. cit. (33).
150. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150(338-9), (353-4), (572); 151 (916)-(918); J. G. Baker, 'A contribution to the flora of northern China', Journal of the Linnean Society (1880), 42, 375-90; Alexander Williamson, Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, 2 vols., London, 1870, ii, 'Appendix D. List of plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson'; B. C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, London, 1886, 123-4; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 954-9.
151. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150(338-9), (353-4), (572); 151 (916)-(918); J. G. Baker, 'A contribution to the flora of northern China', Journal of the Linnean Society (1880), 42, 375-90; Alexander Williamson, Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, 2 vols., London, 1870, ii, 'Appendix D. List of plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson'; B. C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, London, 1886, 123-4; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 954-9.
152. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150(338-9), (353-4), (572); 151 (916)-(918); J. G. Baker, 'A contribution to the flora of northern China', Journal of the Linnean Society (1880), 42, 375-90; Alexander Williamson, Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, 2 vols., London, 1870, ii, 'Appendix D. List of plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson'; B. C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, London, 1886, 123-4; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 954-9.
153. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150(338-9), (353-4), (572); 151 (916)-(918); J. G. Baker, 'A contribution to the flora of northern China', Journal of the Linnean Society (1880), 42, 375-90; Alexander Williamson, Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, 2 vols., London, 1870, ii, 'Appendix D. List of plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson'; B. C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, London, 1886, 123-4; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 954-9.
154. E.g. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150(338-9), (353-4), (572); 151 (916)-(918); J. G. Baker, 'A contribution to the flora of northern China', Journal of the Linnean Society (1880), 42, 375-90; Alexander Williamson, Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, 2 vols., London, 1870, ii, 'Appendix D. List of plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson'; B. C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, London, 1886, 123-4; Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 954-9.
155. F. Porter Smith, Contributions towards the Materia Medica and Natural History of China. For the Use of Medical Missionaries and Native Medical Students, Shanghai, 1871.
156. Bretschneider, op. cit. (33), 720-3.
157. James Troyer, 'John Charles Bowring (1821-1893): contributions of a merchant to natural history', Archives of Natural History (1982), 10, 515-29. See also Anon., The History of the Collections Contained in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 3 vols., London, 1904-12, ii, 581.
158. James Troyer, 'John Charles Bowring (1821-1893): contributions of a merchant to natural history', Archives of Natural History (1982), 10, 515-29. See also Anon., The History of the Collections Contained in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 3 vols., London, 1904-12, ii, 581.
159. George Lanning, 'Thos. W. Kingsmill', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1910), 41, 116-18; Robert Swinhoe, 'Zoological notes of a journey from Canton to Peking and Kalgan', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1870), 427-51, 428-9.
160. George Lanning, 'Thos. W. Kingsmill', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1910), 41, 116-18; Robert Swinhoe, 'Zoological notes of a journey from Canton to Peking and Kalgan', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1870), 427-51, 428-9.
161. Barbara and Richard Mearns, The Bird Collectors, San Diego, 1997, 140-1; C.B.R., unfilled obituary of J. D. D. La Touche, Ibis (1935), 5, 210, 889-90.
162. Barbara and Richard Mearns, The Bird Collectors, San Diego, 1997, 140-1; C.B.R., unfilled obituary of J. D. D. La Touche, Ibis (1935), 5, 210, 889-90.
163. Ferdinand von Richthofen, Letters to the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, Shanghai, 1875. Wang Gen-yuan and Michel Gert, 'The German scholar Ferdinand von Richthofen and geology in China', in Interchange of Geoscience Ideas Between the East and the West (Proceedings of the XVth International Symposium of INHIGEO), Wuhan, 1991, 47-54.
164. Ferdinand von Richthofen, Letters to the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce, Shanghai, 1875. Wang Gen-yuan and Michel Gert, 'The German scholar Ferdinand von Richthofen and geology in China', in Interchange of Geoscience Ideas Between the East and the West (Proceedings of the XVth International Symposium of INHIGEO), Wuhan, 1991, 47-54.
165. See e.g. A. A. Fauvel, 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the year 1878', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1878), n.s., 13, pp. xvii-xviii; D. C. Jansen, 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, pp. xxiii-xxiv.
166. See e.g. A. A. Fauvel, 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the year 1878', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1878), n.s., 13, pp. xvii-xviii; D. C. Jansen, 'Shanghai Museum, report of the curator for the year 1880', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1880), n.s., 15, pp. xxiii-xxiv.
167. H. B. Morse, 'Report of the council on the proposed trade and commerce museum', Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1888), n.s., 23, 49-53.
168. E.g. Henry Hance, 'On silk-worm oaks', China Review (1877), 6, 207-8; idem, 'On the sources of the "China Matting" of commerce', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 99-105; 'On a new Chinese Caryota', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 174-7.
169. E.g. Henry Hance, 'On silk-worm oaks', China Review (1877), 6, 207-8; idem, 'On the sources of the "China Matting" of commerce', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 99-105; 'On a new Chinese Caryota', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 174-7.
170. E.g. Henry Hance, 'On silk-worm oaks', China Review (1877), 6, 207-8; idem, 'On the sources of the "China Matting" of commerce', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 99-105; 'On a new Chinese Caryota', Journal of Botany (1879), n.s., 8, 174-7.
171. P. L. Sclater, Guide to the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, London, 1872, 39; A. D. Bartlett, 'Description of Chinese sheep sent to H. R. H. Prince Albert by Rutherford Alcock', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1857), 104-7.
172. P. L. Sclater, Guide to the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, London, 1872, 39; A. D. Bartlett, 'Description of Chinese sheep sent to H. R. H. Prince Albert by Rutherford Alcock', Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1857), 104-7.
173. Robert Fortune's endeavours for tea hunting were described in A Journey to the Tea Countries of China, London, 1987 [1852] and A Residence among the Chinese: Inland, on the Coast, and at Sea, London, 1857; Percival Griffiths, The History of the Indian Tea Industry, London, 1967, 34-58, 64-9, 78-81, 90.
174. Robert Fortune's endeavours for tea hunting were described in A Journey to the Tea Countries of China, London, 1987 [1852] and A Residence among the Chinese: Inland, on the Coast, and at Sea, London, 1857; Percival Griffiths, The History of the Indian Tea Industry, London, 1967, 34-58, 64-9, 78-81, 90.
175. Robert Fortune's endeavours for tea hunting were described in A Journey to the Tea Countries of China, London, 1987 [1852] and A Residence among the Chinese: Inland, on the Coast, and at Sea, London, 1857; Percival Griffiths, The History of the Indian Tea Industry, London, 1967, 34-58, 64-9, 78-81, 90.
176. Kew, Misc. Reports, 4.4, China, Economic Products, II, ff. 284-5, 286-8, 289-95.
177. Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (285).
178. 106 Gardeners' Chronicles, 22 June 1844, 405.
179. Robert Fortune, Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China, London, 1847, 55.
180. Fortune, journey to the Tea Countries, op. cit. (103), 130-2. Fortune either recounted the same incidents twice or watched Aching pack seeds again in this second journey.
181. Public Records Office (Hong Kong), CO 129/202, 129/206.
182. Henry, op. cit. (92), 102. See also Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (417-18).
183. Henry, op. cit. (92), 102. See also Kew, Chinese and Japanese Letters, 150 (417-18).
184. Fortune, Residence among the Chinese, op. cit. (103), 109-15.
185. On this point, I agree with John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts, Manchester, 1995.
186. My thinking has involved, among others, the following works: Cyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton, 1995; Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York, 1993, Chapter 3 ; Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London, 1994, especially Chapters 5 and 6. See also 'Introduction' to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry Ortner (eds.), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, 1994, 3-45; Sherry Ortner, 'Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal', The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (ed. Terence J. McDonald), Ann Arbor, 1996, 304.
187. My thinking has involved, among others, the following works: Cyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton, 1995; Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York, 1993, Chapter 3 ; Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London, 1994, especially Chapters 5 and 6. See also 'Introduction' to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry Ortner (eds.), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, 1994, 3-45; Sherry Ortner, 'Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal', The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (ed. Terence J. McDonald), Ann Arbor, 1996, 304.
188. My thinking has involved, among others, the following works: Cyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton, 1995; Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York, 1993, Chapter 3 ; Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London, 1994, especially Chapters 5 and 6. See also 'Introduction' to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry Ortner (eds.), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, 1994, 3-45; Sherry Ortner, 'Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal', The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (ed. Terence J. McDonald), Ann Arbor, 1996, 304.
189. My thinking has involved, among others, the following works: Cyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton, 1995; Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York, 1993, Chapter 3 ; Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London, 1994, especially Chapters 5 and 6. See also 'Introduction' to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry Ortner (eds.), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, 1994, 3-45; Sherry Ortner, 'Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal', The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (ed. Terence J. McDonald), Ann Arbor, 1996, 304.
190. My thinking has involved, among others, the following works: Cyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton, 1995; Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York, 1993, Chapter 3 ; Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London, 1994, especially Chapters 5 and 6. See also 'Introduction' to Nicholas Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry Ortner (eds.), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, Princeton, 1994, 3-45; Sherry Ortner, 'Resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal', The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences (ed. Terence J. McDonald), Ann Arbor, 1996, 304.
191. I borrowed the phrase from James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, 1985. See also his wide-ranging Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, New Haven, 1990. It should be noted that Scott is primarily concerned with, so to speak, power relations between social classes.
192. I borrowed the phrase from James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, 1985. See also his wide-ranging Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, New Haven, 1990. It should be noted that Scott is primarily concerned with, so to speak, power relations between social classes.
193. I have been influenced by Sherry B. Ortner, 'Thick resistance: death and the cultural construction of agency in Himalayan mountaineering', Representations (1997), 59, 135-62; Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity - China, 1900-1937, Stanford, 1995.
194. I have been influenced by Sherry B. Ortner, 'Thick resistance: death and the cultural construction of agency in Himalayan mountaineering', Representations (1997), 59, 135-62; Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity - China, 1900-1937, Stanford, 1995.
195. Fortune, op. cit. (107), 3.
196. Fortune, A Residence among the Chinese, op. cit. (103), 206.
197. For example, Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago, 1994; Lorraine Daston, 'The moral economy of science', Osiris (1995), 10, 3-24; idem, 'Baconian facts, academic civility, and the prehistory of objectivity', Annals of Scholarship (1991), 8, 337-64; Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society, Chicago, 1998.
198. For example, Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago, 1994; Lorraine Daston, 'The moral economy of science', Osiris (1995), 10, 3-24; idem, 'Baconian facts, academic civility, and the prehistory of objectivity', Annals of Scholarship (1991), 8, 337-64; Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society, Chicago, 1998.
199. For example, Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago, 1994; Lorraine Daston, 'The moral economy of science', Osiris (1995), 10, 3-24; idem, 'Baconian facts, academic civility, and the prehistory of objectivity', Annals of Scholarship (1991), 8, 337-64; Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society, Chicago, 1998.
200. For example, Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth, Chicago, 1994; Lorraine Daston, 'The moral economy of science', Osiris (1995), 10, 3-24; idem, 'Baconian facts, academic civility, and the prehistory of objectivity', Annals of Scholarship (1991), 8, 337-64; Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society, Chicago, 1998.
201. See n. 65.
202. Thomas Taylor Meadows, 'Report on the consular district of New-Chuang, with the particular reference to its commercial capabilities', 1. The report is collected in Commercial Reports from Her Majesty's Consuls in China for the Year 1862, London, 1864. See also Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900, Princeton, 1986; Poovey, op. cit. (118), Chapters 6 and 7.
203. Thomas Taylor Meadows, 'Report on the consular district of New-Chuang, with the particular reference to its commercial capabilities', 1. The report is collected in Commercial Reports from Her Majesty's Consuls in China for the Year 1862, London, 1864. See also Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900, Princeton, 1986; Poovey, op. cit. (118), Chapters 6 and 7.
204. Thomas Taylor Meadows, 'Report on the consular district of New-Chuang, with the particular reference to its commercial capabilities', 1. The report is collected in Commercial Reports from Her Majesty's Consuls in China for the Year 1862, London, 1864. See also Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900, Princeton, 1986; Poovey, op. cit. (118), Chapters 6 and 7.
205. S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, 2 vols., New York, 1913 [1882], ii, 65; John Davis, China: A General Description of that Empire and Its Inhabitants, revised edn., 2 vols., London, 1857, ii, 221. See also Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca, NY, 1989, 338-42.
206. S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, 2 vols., New York, 1913 [1882], ii, 65; John Davis, China: A General Description of that Empire and Its Inhabitants, revised edn., 2 vols., London, 1857, ii, 221. See also Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca, NY, 1989, 338-42.
207. S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, 2 vols., New York, 1913 [1882], ii, 65; John Davis, China: A General Description of that Empire and Its Inhabitants, revised edn., 2 vols., London, 1857, ii, 221. See also Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca, NY, 1989, 338-42.
208. I have benefited from the insights in Mary Louise Pratt, The Imperial Eye: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London, 1992, and Stephen Greenblatt's Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World, Chicago, 1991.
209. I have benefited from the insights in Mary Louise Pratt, The Imperial Eye: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London, 1992, and Stephen Greenblatt's Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World, Chicago, 1991.