High-temperature solar chemistry for converting solar heat to chemical fuels

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2003, Pages 567-597

  Kodama, T ^a  

^a NIIGATA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Coal gasification; Hydrogen energy; Methane reforming; Oxidative coupling of methane; Solar high temperature heat; Synthesis gas; Thermochemical conversion; Water splitting

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; COAL GASIFICATION; FUELS; HEAT FLUX; HIGH TEMPERATURE OPERATIONS; SOLAR RADIATION; SYNTHESIS GAS;

SOLAR CHEMISTRY;

SOLAR ENERGY;

EID: 0242364108     PISSN: 03601285     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0360-1285(03)00059-5     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Meinecke W., Bohn M. Solar energy concentrating systems: Applications and technologies. Becker M., Gupta B. 1995;C.F. Müller, Heidelberg.
2. Tyner C., Kolb G., Praire M., Weinrebe G., Valverde A., Sanchez M. Solar power tower development: recent experiences. Solar thermal concentrating technologies. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium, Köln, Germany. vol. 1:1996;C.F. Müller, Heidelberg. p. 193-216.
3. Schmitz-Goeb M., Finker A. The PHOEBUS solar power tower. Solar thermal concentrating technologies. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium, Köln, Germany. vol. 1:1996;C.F. Müller, Heidelberg. p. 269-81.
4. Yogev A., Kribus A., Epstein M., Gogan A. Solar tower reflector systems: a new approach for high-temperature solar plants. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 23:(4):1998;239-245.
5. Tyner C., Kolb G., Meinecke W., Trieb F. Solar thermal electricity in 1998: an IEA/solarPACES summary of status and future prospects. J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr3-17-Pr3-22.
6. Becker M., Meinecke W. Component developments for novel solar thermal facilities. J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr3-23-Pr3hyphen34n.
7. Segal A., Epstein M. The reflective solar tower as an option for high temperature central receivers. J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr3-53-Pr3hyphen8n.
8. Segal A., Epstein M. Comparative performances of 'tower-top' and 'tower-reflector' central solar receivers. Solar Energy. 65:(4):1999;207-226.
9. Osuna R., Fernéndez V., Romero M., Blanco M. PS10: A 10 MW solar tower power plant for southern Spain. Kreetz H., Lovegrove K., Meike W. Solar thermal. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Sydney, Australia. 2000;13-18.
10. Heller P., Baumüller A., Schiel W., EURODISH . The next milestone to decrease the costs of dish/stirling systems towards competitiveness. Kreetz H., Lovegrove K., Meike W. Solar thermal. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Sydney, Australia. 2000;33-38.
11. Geyer E., Schiel W., Zaraza E., González-Aguilar R., Nava P. EUROTROUGH: a new parabolic trough collector with advanced light weight structure. Kreetz H., Lovegrove K., Meike W. Solar thermal. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies. 2000;45-50.
12. Lakshmanan S., Manasse F., Mathur V. Production of fuels from high temperature solar thermal synthesis - economic analysis. Farag I., Melsheimer S. Fundamentals and applications of solar energy. AICHE symposium series no. 198. vol. 76:1998;156.
13. Fletcher E. On the thermodynamics of solar energy use. J Minn Acad Sci. 49:(2):1984;30-34.
14. Sizmann R. Solar driven chemistry. CHIMIA. 43:1989;202-206.
15. Grasse W., Tyner C., Steinfeld A. International R&D collaboration in developing solar thermal technologies for electric power and solar chemistry: the solarPACES program of the International Energy Agency (IEA). J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr3-9-Pr3-15.
16. 2 reduction and cost evaluation. Kreetz H., Lovegrove K., Meike W. Solar thermal. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Sydney, Australia. 2000;189-192.
17. Steinfeld A., Schubnell M. Optimum aperture size and operating temperature of a solar cavity-receiver. Solar Energy. 50:(1):1993;19-25.
18. Fletcher E., Moen R. Hydrogen and oxygen from water. The use of solar energy in a one-step effusional process is considered. Science. 197:1977;1050-1056.
19. Nakamura T. Hydrogen production from water utilizing solar heat at high temperatures. Solar Energy. 19:1977;467-475.
20. Ihara S. Feasibility of hydrogen production by direct water splitting at high temperature. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 3:1978;287-296.
21. Diver R., Fletcher E. Hydrogen and oxygen from water. II. Some considerations in the reduction of the idea to practice. Energy. 4:1979;1139-1150.
22. Kogan A. Direct solar thermal splitting of water and on-site separation of the products. II. Experimental feasibility study. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 23:(2):1998;89-98.
23. Bilgen E., Joels R. An assessment of solar hydrogen production using the Mark 13 hybrid process. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 10:(3):1985;143-155.
24. Aochi A., Tadokoro T., Yoshida K., Kameyama H., Nobue M., Yamaguchi T. Economical and technical evaluation of UT-3 thermochemical hydrogen production process for an industrial scale plant. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 14:(7):1989;421-429.
25. Onuki K., Shimizu S., Nakajima H., Fujita S., Ikezoe Y., Sato S., Machi S. Studies on an iodine-sulfur process for thermochemical hydrogen production. Proc Eighth World Hydrogen Energy Conf. 2:1990;547-556.
26. Sakurai M., Bilgen E., Tsutsumi A., Yoshida K. Solar UT-3 thermochemical cycle for hydrogen production. Solar Energy. 57:(1):1996;51-58.
27. Tofighi A., Sibieude F., Ducarrior M., Benezech G. Décomposition thermique á lair de la magnetite au foyer dun four solaire. Rev Int Htes Temp Réfract. 15:1978;7-13.
28. 4, CdO. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 7:(1):1982;79-88.
29. Lundberg M. Model calculations on some feasible two-step water splitting processes. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 18:(5):1993;369-376.
30. Bilgen E., Ducarroir M., Foex M., Sibieude F., Trombe F. Use of solar energy for direct and two-step water decomposition cycle. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2:1977;251-257.
31. Palumbo R., Lédé J., Boutin O., Ricart E., Steinfeld A., Möller S., Weidenkaff A., Fletcher E., Bielicki J. The production of Zn from ZnO in a high-temperature solar decomposition quench process. I. The scientific framework for the process. Chem Engng Sci. 53:(14):1998;2503-2517.
32. Palumbo R. Solar thermal chemical processing: challenges and changes. J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr3-35-Pr3hyphen40n.
33. Weidenkaff A., Brack M., Möller S., Palumbo R., Steinfeld A. Solar thermal production of zinc: program strategy and status of research. J Phys IV Fr. 9:1999;Pr-313-Prhyphen318.
34. Weidenkaff A., Steinfeld A., Wokaun A., Auer P., Eichler B., Reller A. Direct solar thermal dissociation of zinc oxide: condensation and crystallization of zinc in the presence of oxygen. Solar Energy. 65:(1):1999;59-69.
35. Weidenkaff A., Reller A., Wokaun A., Steinfeld A. Thermogravimetric analysis of the ZnO/Zn water splitting cycle. Thermochem Acta. 359:2000;69-75.
36. 1-yO. Solid State Ionics. 78:1995;151-160.
37. 2O atmosphere. Solid State Ionics. 90:1996;75-81.
38. Tamaura T., Steinfeld A., Kuhn P., Ehrensberger K. Production of solar hydrogen by a novel, 2-step, water-splitting thermochemical cycle. Energy. 20:(4):1995;325-330.
39. 4/FeO redox system. Solar Energy. 65:(1):1999;43-53.
40. Diver R. Receiver/reactor concepts for thermochemical transport of solar energy. Solar Energy Engng. 109:1987;199-204.
41. Hunt A., Ayer J., Hull P., Miller F., Noring J., Worth D. Solar radiant heating of gas-particle mixtures. 1986;Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory LBL-22743, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
42. Rightley M., Matthews L., Mulholland G. Experimental characterization of the heat transfer in a free-falling-particle receiver. Solar Energy. 48:1992;363-374.
43. Steinfeld A., Brack M., Granz J., Hauter P., Imhof A., Meier A., Mischler D., Nater E., Seitz T. Particle-cloud reactor development for high-temperature solar chemistry. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Moscow, Russia. vol. 4:1994;. p. 888-95.
44. Meier A., Ganz J., Steinfeld A. Modeling of a novel high-temperature solar chemical reactor. Chem Engng Sci. 51:(11):1996;3181-3186.
45. Ganz J., Meier A., Mischler D., Tschudi H. Properties of volumetric gas-particle solar reactors. Solar thermal concentrating technologies. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium, Köln, Germany. vol. 1:1997;C.F. Müller, Heidelberg. p. 555-66.
46. Steinfeld A., Brack M., Meier A., Weidenkaff A., Wuillemin D. A solar chemical reactor for co-production of zinc and synthesis gas. Energy. 23:(10):1998;803-814.
47. Haueter P., Moeller S., Palumbo R., Steinfeld A. The production of zinc by thermal dissociation of zinc oxide - solar chemical reactor design. Solar Energy. 67:(1-3):1999;161-167.
48. Tart K. Energy conversion through coal gasification. Energy World. Jun:1990.
49. McMullan J., Williams B., Sloan E. Clean coal technologies. Proc Inst Mech Engrs. 211:1997;95-107.
50. Gregg D., Aiman W., Otuki H., Thorsness C. Solar coal gasification. Solar Energy. 24:1980;313-321.
51. Gregg D., Taylor R., Campbell J., Taylor J., Cotton A. Solar gasification of coal, activated carbon, coke and coal and biomass mixtures. Solar Energy. 25:1980;353-364.
52. Aiman W., Thorsness C., Gregg D. Solar coal gasification: plant design and economics. UCRL Preprint 84610. 1981;Lawrence Livemore Laboratory, Livemore, CA.
53. Taylor R., Berjoan R., Coutures J. Solar gasification of carbonaceous materials. Solar Energy. 30:(6):1983;513-525.
54. Beattie W., Berjoan R., Coutures J. High-temperature solar pyrolysis of coal. Solar Energy. 31:(2):1983;137-143.
55. Epstein M., Spiewak I., Funken K., Ortner J. Review of the technology for solar gasification of carbonaceous materials. Proceedings of Solar Engineering Conference. 1994;The ASME/JSME/JSES International Solar Energy Conference, San Francisco, CA. p. 79-91.
56. Flechsenhar M., Sasse C. Solar gasification of biomass using oil shale and coal as candidate materials. Solar Energy. 20:1995;803-810.
57. Tsuji M., Wada Y., Tamaura Y., Steinfeld A., Kuhn P., Palumbo R. Coal gasification using the ZnO/Zn redox system. Energy Fuels. 10:1996;225-228.
58. 4 system for mixing of solar and fossil energy. Energy. 22:(2/3):1997;337-342.
59. 2 gasification of coal using a redox system of reactive iron-based oxide. Energy Fuels. 12:1998;775-781.
60. Funken K.-H., Lüpfert E., Hermes M., Brühne K., Pohlmann B. Oxidation rates of carbon black particles exposed to concentrated sunlight. Solar Energy. 65:(1):1999;15-19.
61. Ono H., Yoshida S., Nezuka M., Sano T., Tsuji M., Tamaura Y. Kinetics and simulation on high-temperature solar thermochemical energy conversion process on the Boudouard reaction. Energy Fuels. 13:1999;579-584.
62. 2 gas bubbling in molten salt for solar/fossil energy hybridization. Solar Energy. 68:(3):2000;257-261.
63. 2 in molten salt for solar thermal/chemical energy conversion. Energy. 25:2000;71-79.
64. 2. Energy. 25:2000;201-218.
65. 3 system. Energy Fuels. 14:2000;202-211.
66. 2 gasification of coal using a solar furnace simulator. Energy Fuels. 14:2000;1323-1330.
67. 2 gasification of coal in a fluidized-bed reactor for solar thermochemical process. Energy Fuels. 15:2001;1200-1206.
68. Vadovic C., Eakman J. Kinetics of potassium catalyzed gasification. Proc Am Chem Soc, Div Fuel Chem. 223:(3):1978.
69. 2 under direct irradiation with concentrated visible light. Energy Fuels. 16:2002;1264-1270.
70. Hopkins M., Dejenga C. Jr, Antal M. The flash pyrolysis of cellulosic materials using concentrated visible light. Solar Energy. 32:(4):1984;547-551.
71. Hafmann L. Jr, Antal M. Numerical simulations of the performance of solar fired flash pyrolysis reactors. Solar Energy. 33:(5):1984;427-440.
72. Hopkins M. Jr, Antal M. Radiant flash pyrolysis of biomass using a xenon flashtube. J Appl Polym Sci. 29:1984;2163-2175.
73. Berber R., Fletcher E. Extracting oil from shale using solar energy. Energy. 13:(1):1988;13-23.
74. Ingel G., Levy M., Gordon J. Oil-shale gasification by concentrated sunlight: An open-loop solar chemical heat pipe. Energy. 17:(12):1992;1189-1197.
75. Murray J., Fletcher E. Reaction of steam with cellulose in a fluidized bed using concentrated sunlight. Energy. 19:(10):1994;1083-1098.
76. Rustamov V., Abdullayev M., Aliyev F., Kerimov V. Hydrogen formation from biomass using solar energy. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 23:(8):1998;649-652.
77. Lédé J. Solar thermochemical conversion of biomass. Solar Energy. 65:(1):1999;3-13.
78. Johnson J. The use of catalysts in coal gasification. Catal Rev: Sci Engng. 14:(1):1976;131-152.
79. McKee D. The catalyzed gasification reaction of carbon. Walker P. Jr, Thrower P. Chemistry and physics of carbon. A series of advances. vol. 16:1981;1-118 Marcel Dekker, New York.
80. 3-catalyzed steam gasification of carbon and coal. Ind Engng Chem Process Des Dev. 21:1982;25-29.
81. 2 gasification. Fuel. 62:1983;880-882.
82. 3 catalyzed Boudouard reaction. Metall Trans B. 15:1984;400-403.
83. Song B., Kim S. Catalytic activity of alkali and iron salt mixtures for steam-char gasification. Fuel. 72:(6):1993;797-803.
84. 2. Fuel. 74:(3):1995;456-458.
85. 2 gasification of activated carbon catalyzed by earth alkaline elements. AIChE J. 32:(4):1986;691-695.
86. 2. Energy Fuels. 2:1988;634-639.
87. Ohtsuka Y., Asami K. Steam gasification of low-rank coals with a chlorine-free iron catalyst from ferric chloride. Ind Engng Chem Res. 30:1991;1921-1926.
88. Cazorla-Amorós D., Linares-Solano A., Marcilla Gomis A., Salinas-Martinez de Lecea C. Calcium catalytic active sites in carbon-gas reactions. Determination of the specific activity. Energy Fuels. 5:1991;796-802.
89. 2-carbon gasification catalyzed by alkaline-earths: comparative study of the metal-carbon interaction and of the specific activity. Carbon. 31:(3):1993;493-500.
90. 2 gasification. Energy Fuels. 10:1996;980-987.
91. 2 reaction using metal catalysts and binary vanadium mixtures supported on activated carbon. Carbon. 39:2001;451-463.
92. Chatterji D., Vest R. Thermodynamic properties of the system indium-oxygen. J Am Ceram Soc. 55:(11):1972;575-578.
93. 2O). Thermochem Acta. 21:1977;215-224.
94. Anderson T., Donaghey F. Solid-state electrochemical study of the standard Gibbs energy of formation of indium sesquioxide. J Chem Thermodyn. 9:1977;617-628.
95. Jenko M., Erjavec B., Pracek B. AES studies of surface phenomena on liquid indium solder. Vacuum. 40:(1/2):1990;77-80.
96. 4 (1:1) system. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 11:(4):1986;267-277.
97. Parmon V., Anikeev V., Kririllov V., Zamaraev K. Experimental solar catalytic power plants based on reversible reactions with participation methane and synthesis gas. Hydrogen energy progress. VI. Proceedings of the Sixth World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Vienna, Austria. vol. 2:1986;Pergamon Press, New York. p. 582-99.
98. Aristov Y., Bobrava I., Bobrov N., Parmon V. Limiting values of efficiency and specific power of thermochemical solar energy conversion using methane steam reforming. Proceedings of the Seventh World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Moscow, Russia. 1989;Pergamon Press, New York. p. 1079-91.
99. Levitan R., Rosin H., Levy M. Chemical reactions in a solar furnace-direct heating of the reactor in a tubular receiver. Solar Energy. 42:(3):1989;267-272.
100. Böhmer M., Langnickel U., Sanchez M. Solar steam reforming of methane. Solar Energy Mater. 24:1991;441-448.
101. Buck R., Muir J., Hogan R., Skocypec R. Carbon dioxide reforming of methane in a solar volumetric receiver/reactor: the CAESAR project. Solar Energy Mater. 24:1991;449-463.
102. Langniclel U., Böhmer M., Funken K.-H. Solare Dampfreformierung von Methan-Darstellung von Testergebnissen. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sonnenenergie. e.V., 8. Int Sonnenforum, Berlin, Germany. vol. 2:1992;DGS_Sonnenenergie Verlag-GmbH, Munchen. p. 1352-7.
103. Levy M. Studies in closed and open loop solar chemical heat pipes. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technology, Mojacar, Spain. vol. 2:1992;Ser. Ponencias, Madrid. p.1003-11.
104. Levy M., Levitan R., Rosin H., Rubin R. Solar energy storage via a closed-loop chemical heat pipe. Solar Energy. 50:(2):1993;179-189.
105. Muir J. Jr, Hogan R., Skocypec R., Buck R. Solar reforming of methane in a direct absorption catalytic reactor on a parabolic dish. I. Test and analysis. Solar Energy. 52:(6):1994;467-477.
106. Scocypec R. Jr, Hogan R., Muir J. Solar reforming of methane in a direct absorption catalytic reactor on a parabolic dish. II. Modeling and analysis. Solar Energy. 52:(6):1994;479-490.
107. Buck R., Abele M., Bauer H., Seitz A., Tamme R. Development of a volumetric receiver-reactor for solar methane reforming. ASME: J Solar Energy Engng. 116:1994;73-78.
108. 4 reforming for reducing greenhouse gas emissions during the generation of electricity and process heat. Energy Convers Mgmt. 37:(6-8):1996;1339-1344.
109. Abele M., Bauer H., Buck R., Tamme R., Wörner A. Design and test results of a receiver-reactor for solar methane reforming. ASME: J Solar Energy Engng. 118:1996;339-346.
110. Epstein M., Spiewak I., Segal A., Levy I., Lieberman D., Meri M., Lerner V. Solar experiments with a tubular reformer. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technology, Cologne, Germany. vol. 3:1996;C.F. Muller, Heidelberg. p. 1209-29.
111. Tanashev Y., Fedoseev V., Aristov Y. High-temperature catalysis driven by the direct action of concentrated light or a high-density electron beam. Catal Today. 39:1997;251-260.
112. Schwärzler C., Schmölz P. Thermally activated conversion of methane and carbon dioxide gas mixtures: complex C/H/O modeling. Solar Energy. 61:(1):1997;1-4.
113. Aristov Y., Fedoseev V., Parmon V. High-density conversion of light energy via direct illumination of catalyst. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 22:(9):1997;869-874.
114. Anikeev V., Bobrin A., Ortner J., Schmidt S., Funken K.-H., Kuzin N. Catalytic thermochemical reactor/receiver for solar reforming of natural gas: design and performance. Solar Energy. 63:(2):1998;97-104.
115. 2 reforming of methane in a solar driven volumetric receiver-reactor. Catal Today. 46:1998;165-174.
116. Kirillov V. Catalyst application in solar thermochemistry. Solar Energy. 66:(2):1999;143-149.
117. 3 catalyst at 650 °C by using a solar furnace simulator. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 25:2000;81-86.
118. 3/W redox system. Energy. 20:2000;411-425.
119. Fishier U., Sugarmen C., Tamme R., Buck R., Epstein M. Solar upgrading of fuels for generating of electricity. Solar thermal. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Sydney, Australia. 2000;19-20.
120. Edwards J., Duffy G., Benito R., Do T., Dave N., McNaughton R. CSIROs solar thermal-fossil energy hybrid technology for advanced power generation. Kreetz H., Lovegrove K., Meike W. Solar thermal 2000. Proceedings of the 10th SolarPACES International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Sydney, Australia. 2000;27-32.
121. 2 Fixation and Efficient Utilization of Energy and the Fourth International World Energy System Conference, Tokyo, Japan. 2002;. p. 284-7.
122. Harth R., Boltendahl U. The chemical heat pipe. Interdiscip Sci Rev. 6:1981;221-228.
123. Kiyama A., Kondoh Y., Yokoyama T., Shimizu K.-I., Kodama T. New catalytically-activated metal/ceramic foam absorbers for solar reforming receiver-reactor. Steinfeld A. Proceedings of the 11th SolarPACES International Symposium on Concentrated Solar Power and Chemical Energy Technologies, Zurich, Switzerland. 2002;337-343.
124. Richardson J., Paripatyadar S. Carbon dioxide reforming of methane with supported rhodium. Appl Catal. 61:1990;293-309.
125. 2 over alumina-supported Pt metals. Catal Lett. 11:1991;149-156.
126. Edwards J., Maitra A. The chemistry of methane reforming with carbon dioxide and its current and potential applications. Fuel Process Technol. 42:1995;269-289.
127. Berman A., Levitan R., Epstein M., Levy M. Ruthenium methanation and reforming catalysts for solar chemical heat pipe. Proceedings of the ASME 1996 International Solar Energy Conference, San Antonio, Texas. 1996;. p. 61-9.
128. Berman A., Epstein M. Ruthenium catalysts for high temperature solar reforming of methane. Saetre T. Hydrogen power: theoretical and engineering solutions. Proceedings of the Hypothesis II Symposium, Grimstad, Norway. 1997;213-218 Kluwer Academic Publishier, Netherlands.
129. 2. J Am Ceram Soc. 72:(4):1989;683-687.
130. Gadalla A., Sommer M. Carbon dioxide reforming of methane on nickel catalysts. Chem Engng Sci. 44:(12):1989;2825-2829.
131. Yamazaki O., Nozaki T., Omata K., Fujimoto K. Reduction of carbon dioxide by methane with Ni-on-MgO-CaO containing catalyst. Chem Lett. 1992;1953-1954.
132. 4. Stud Surf Sci Catal. 88:1994;281-288.
133. Choudhary V., Uphade B., Mamman A. Large enhancement in methane-to-syngas conversion activity of supported Ni catalysts due to precoating of catalyst supports with MgO, CaO or rare-earth oxide. Catal Lett. 32:1995;387-390.
134. Gronchi P., Fumagalli D., Del Rosso R., Centola P. Carbon deposition in methane reforming with carbon dioxide. Dry reforming. J Therm Anal. 47:1996;227-234.
135. 3 catalyst. Appl Catal A: Gen. 144:1996;111-120.
136. 4. Catal Lett. 43:1997;71-77.
137. 2 reforming of methane. Catal Today. 45:1998;35-39.
138. Choudhary V., Mamman A. Energy efficient conversion of methane to syngas over NiO-MgO solid solution. Appl Energy. 66:2000;161-175.
139. 2-reforming of methane. Energy Fuels. 16:2002;1016-1023.
140. Keller G., Bhasin M. Synthesis of ethylene via oxidative coupling of methane. J Catal. 73:1982;9-19.
141. Dry M. The Fisher-Tropsch synthesis. Anderson J., Boudart M. Catalysis: science and technology. vol. 1:1981;159-255 Springer, Berlin.
142. 4-Olefine durch Umsetzung von methanol an kleinporigen Zeolithen. Chem Ing Tech. 54:1982;590-592.
143. Li X.-H., Tomishige K., Fujimoto K. Oxidative coupling of methane by water as the oxidant on perovskite oxide catalyst. Catal Lett. 36:1996;21-24.
144. 2. Energy. 22:1997;859-866.
145. 2 hydrocarbons. Catal Lett. 45:1997;245-248.
146. 2 using a redox system of metal oxide. Energy Fuels. 11:1997;1257-1263.
147. 2 in methane-water co-feed system. Energy Fuels. 15:2001;463-469.
148. 6 via oxidative coupling of methane. J Catal. 100:1986;353-359.
149. Sofranko J., Leonard J., Jones C. The oxidative conversion of methane to higher hydrocarbons. J Catal. 103:1987;302-310.
150. 2. J Catal. 103:1987;311-319.
151. 4/MgO catalysts. Appl Catal A: Gen. 168:1988;131-137.
152. Chang Y.-F., Somorjai G., Heinemann H. Oxidative coupling of methane over Mg-Li oxide catalysts at relatively low temperature: the effect of steam. J Catal. 141:1993;713-720.
153. Maitra A., Sacchetta C., Tyler R. Effect of feed dilution with helium and steam on catalytic oxidative coupling of methane (OCM). Stud Surf Sci Catal. 81:1994;261-268.
154. Lunsford J. The catalytic oxidative coupling of methane. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 34:1995;970-980.
155. Murata K., Hayakawa T., Hamakawa S., Suzuki K. New stage of oxidative coupling reaction of methane: development of novel catalysts by modification of solid-super acid. Stud Surf Sci Catal. 119:1998;331-336.
156. 2 as an oxidant over PbO-MgO. J Catal. 122:1990;346-351.