Recent Trends in Mainland China's Media: Political Implications of Commercialization

Issues and Studies

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 175-215

  McCormick, Barrett L ^a  

^a MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

China; Commercialization; Internet; Media; Politics; State of the field

Indexed keywords

EID: 0242360796     PISSN: 10132511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard, 1983).
2. Daniel C. Lynch, After the Propaganda State: Media, Politics, and "Thought Work" in Reformed China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999).
3. Deborah S. Davis, "Introduction: A Revolution in Consumption," in The Consumer Revolution in Urban China, ed. Deborah S. Davis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 1-22.
4. Jianying Zha, China Pop: How Soap Operas, Tabloids and Bestsellers Are Transforming a Culture (New York: New Press, 1995).
5. Yuezhi Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy in China: Between the Party Line and the Bottom Line (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
6. See note 2 above.
7. Chin-chuan Lee, ed., Power, Money, and Media: Communication Patterns and Bureaucratic Control in Cultural China (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2000); and Chin-chuan Lee, ed., Chinese Media, Global Contexts (New York: Routledge, forthcoming 2003). The author is grateful to Chin-chuan Lee for sharing copies of the manuscript of Chinese Media, Global Contexts prior to publication.
8. Chin-chuan Lee, ed., Power, Money, and Media: Communication Patterns and Bureaucratic Control in Cultural China (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2000); and Chin-chuan Lee, ed., Chinese Media, Global Contexts (New York: Routledge, forthcoming 2003). The author is grateful to Chin-chuan Lee for sharing copies of the manuscript of Chinese Media, Global Contexts prior to publication.
9. Stephanie Hemelryk Donald, Michael Keane, and Yin Hong, eds., Media in China: Consumption, Content and Crisis (London: Routledge/Curzon, 2002).
10. Michael Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom, a Thousand Television Stations Contend," 5-16; Li Xiaoping, "'Focus' (Jiaodian Fangtan) and Changes in the Chinese Television Industry," 17-34; Alex Chan, "From Propaganda to Hegemony: Jiaodian Fangtan and China's Media Policy," 35-52; and Ian Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda and Control Modalities: A Case Study of Shanghai's Television System," 53-75 - all in Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 30 (February 2002).
11. Michael Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom, a Thousand Television Stations Contend," 5-16; Li Xiaoping, "'Focus' (Jiaodian Fangtan) and Changes in the Chinese Television Industry," 17-34; Alex Chan, "From Propaganda to Hegemony: Jiaodian Fangtan and China's Media Policy," 35-52; and Ian Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda and Control Modalities: A Case Study of Shanghai's Television System," 53-75 - all in Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 30 (February 2002).
12. Michael Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom, a Thousand Television Stations Contend," 5-16; Li Xiaoping, "'Focus' (Jiaodian Fangtan) and Changes in the Chinese Television Industry," 17-34; Alex Chan, "From Propaganda to Hegemony: Jiaodian Fangtan and China's Media Policy," 35-52; and Ian Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda and Control Modalities: A Case Study of Shanghai's Television System," 53-75 - all in Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 30 (February 2002).
13. Michael Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom, a Thousand Television Stations Contend," 5-16; Li Xiaoping, "'Focus' (Jiaodian Fangtan) and Changes in the Chinese Television Industry," 17-34; Alex Chan, "From Propaganda to Hegemony: Jiaodian Fangtan and China's Media Policy," 35-52; and Ian Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda and Control Modalities: A Case Study of Shanghai's Television System," 53-75 - all in Journal of Contemporary China 11, no. 30 (February 2002).
14. These include (but are not limited to) Yuezhi Zhao, "Watchdogs on Party Leashes? Contexts and Implications of Investigative Journalism in Post-Deng China," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; "From Commercialization to Conglomeration: The Transformation of the Chinese Press Within the Orbit of the Party State," Journal of Communication 50, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 3-26; "Media and Elusive Democracy in China," The Public/Javnost 8, no. 2 (June 2001): 21-44; and "The Rich, the Laid-off, and the Criminal in Tabloid Tales: Read All About It!" in Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 111-35.
15. These include (but are not limited to) Yuezhi Zhao, "Watchdogs on Party Leashes? Contexts and Implications of Investigative Journalism in Post-Deng China," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; "From Commercialization to Conglomeration: The Transformation of the Chinese Press Within the Orbit of the Party State," Journal of Communication 50, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 3-26; "Media and Elusive Democracy in China," The Public/Javnost 8, no. 2 (June 2001): 21-44; and "The Rich, the Laid-off, and the Criminal in Tabloid Tales: Read All About It!" in Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 111-35.
16. These include (but are not limited to) Yuezhi Zhao, "Watchdogs on Party Leashes? Contexts and Implications of Investigative Journalism in Post-Deng China," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; "From Commercialization to Conglomeration: The Transformation of the Chinese Press Within the Orbit of the Party State," Journal of Communication 50, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 3-26; "Media and Elusive Democracy in China," The Public/Javnost 8, no. 2 (June 2001): 21-44; and "The Rich, the Laid-off, and the Criminal in Tabloid Tales: Read All About It!" in Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 111-35.
17. These include (but are not limited to) Yuezhi Zhao, "Watchdogs on Party Leashes? Contexts and Implications of Investigative Journalism in Post-Deng China," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; "From Commercialization to Conglomeration: The Transformation of the Chinese Press Within the Orbit of the Party State," Journal of Communication 50, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 3-26; "Media and Elusive Democracy in China," The Public/Javnost 8, no. 2 (June 2001): 21-44; and "The Rich, the Laid-off, and the Criminal in Tabloid Tales: Read All About It!" in Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul G. Pickowicz (Totowa: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 111-35.
18. Joseph Man Chan, "Media Internationalization in China: Processes and Tensions," Journal of Communication 44, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 70-88; Joseph M. Chan, "Television in Greater China: Structure, Exports, and Market Formation," in New Patterns in Global Television: Peripheral Vision, ed. John Sinclair, Elizabeth Jacka, and Stuart Cunningham (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), 126-61; and Joseph M. Chan, "Disneyfying and Globalizing the Chinese Legend Mulan: A Study of Transculturation," in In Search of Boundaries - Communication: Nation-States and Cultural Identities, ed. Joseph M. Chan and Bruce McIntyre (Westport, Conn.: Ablex, 2002), 225-48.
19. Joseph Man Chan, "Media Internationalization in China: Processes and Tensions," Journal of Communication 44, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 70-88; Joseph M. Chan, "Television in Greater China: Structure, Exports, and Market Formation," in New Patterns in Global Television: Peripheral Vision, ed. John Sinclair, Elizabeth Jacka, and Stuart Cunningham (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), 126-61; and Joseph M. Chan, "Disneyfying and Globalizing the Chinese Legend Mulan: A Study of Transculturation," in In Search of Boundaries - Communication: Nation-States and Cultural Identities, ed. Joseph M. Chan and Bruce McIntyre (Westport, Conn.: Ablex, 2002), 225-48.
20. Joseph Man Chan, "Media Internationalization in China: Processes and Tensions," Journal of Communication 44, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 70-88; Joseph M. Chan, "Television in Greater China: Structure, Exports, and Market Formation," in New Patterns in Global Television: Peripheral Vision, ed. John Sinclair, Elizabeth Jacka, and Stuart Cunningham (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), 126-61; and Joseph M. Chan, "Disneyfying and Globalizing the Chinese Legend Mulan: A Study of Transculturation," in In Search of Boundaries - Communication: Nation-States and Cultural Identities, ed. Joseph M. Chan and Bruce McIntyre (Westport, Conn.: Ablex, 2002), 225-48.
21. Randy Kluver has compiled an extensive bibliography of works on the Chinese Internet which is available at 〈http://www.china-wired.com/field/kluver/bibliography-kluver.htm〉, accessed by this author on February 17, 2003.
22. Zhang Junhua and Martin Woesler, eds., China's Digital Dream: The Impact of the Internet on Chinese Society (Bochum, Germany: University Press Bochum, 2002).
23. Michael Chase and James Mulvenon, You've Got Dissent! Chinese Dissident Use of the Internet and Beijing's Counter-Strategies (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 2002).
24. Eric Kit-Wai Ma, "Rethinking Media Studies: The Case of China, " in De-Westernizing Media Studies, ed. James Curran and Myung-Jin Park (New York: Routledge, 2000), 25.
25. Stephanie Hemelryk Donald and Michael Keane, "Media in China: New Convergences, New Approaches," in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 9.
26. See notes 5 and 10 above.
27. Chin-chuan Lee, "Chinese Communication: Prisms, Trajectories, and Modes of Understanding," in Lee, Power, Money, and Media, 9, 26-36.
28. Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy in China, 52-54.
29. Yu Huang and Andrew Green, "Forty Years of Television in China," in Television in Contemporary Asia, ed. David French and Michael Richards (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2000), 267-91, 276.
30. Lee, "Chinese Communication," 9, 11.
31. Qing Liu, "The Political Economy of Media Reform" (Unpublished paper, 2002). While this advertisement is widely recognized as the first since the Cultural Revolution, Liu states that there may have been an advertisement in a newspaper in Tianjin earlier that same year. Ran Wei reports Chinese audiences to be more receptive to commercials by the end of the 1990s. See Ran Wei, "Embracing Advertising: Chinese Consumers Show a New Attitude in the 1990s," Asian Mass Communication Research and Information 12, no. 1 (2002): 58-76.
32. Qing Liu, "The Political Economy of Media Reform" (Unpublished paper, 2002). While this advertisement is widely recognized as the first since the Cultural Revolution, Liu states that there may have been an advertisement in a newspaper in Tianjin earlier that same year. Ran Wei reports Chinese audiences to be more receptive to commercials by the end of the 1990s. See Ran Wei, "Embracing Advertising: Chinese Consumers Show a New Attitude in the 1990s," Asian Mass Communication Research and Information 12, no. 1 (2002): 58-76.
33. Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda," 59.
34. See Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 31-32.
35. Weber, "Reconfiguring Chinese Propaganda," 65.
36. Mark Harrison, "Satellite and Cable Platforms: Development and Content," in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 167-78.
37. Ran Wei, "China's Television in the Era of Modernization," in French and Richards, Television in Contemporary Asia, 327.
38. Ibid., 341.
39. Ma, "Rethinking Media Studies," 30.
40. Guoguang Wu, "One Head, Many Mouths: Diversifying Press Structures in Reform China," in Lee, Power, Money, and Media, 56.
41. For a useful summary of the organization of China's Internet, see Eric Harwit and Duncan Clark, "Shaping the Internet in China: Evolution of Political Control over Network Infrastructure and Content," Asian Survey 41, no. 3 (May/June 2001): 377-408.
42. David Sheff, China Dawn: The Story of a Technology and Business Revolution (New York: HarperBusiness, 2002).
43. Chase and Mulvenon, You've Got Dissent! 5.
44. Ying Zhu offers a useful overview of reforms to the Chinese film industry. See Ying Zhu, "Chinese Cinema's Economic Reform from the Mid-1980s to the Mid-1990s," Journal of Communication 52, no. 4 (December 2002): 905-21.
45. Perry Link, The Uses of Literature: Life in the Socialist Chinese Literary System (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 203.
46. Yingchi Chu, "The Consumption of Cinema in Contemporary China, " in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 43. See also Stanley Rosen, "Same Bed, Different Dreams: Hollywood and American Film in the China Shop" (Unpublished paper, 2001).
47. Yingchi Chu, "The Consumption of Cinema in Contemporary China, " in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 43. See also Stanley Rosen, "Same Bed, Different Dreams: Hollywood and American Film in the China Shop" (Unpublished paper, 2001).
48. See, for example, Li, "Focus," esp. 19-20.
49. Cited in Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy, 36. For Zhao's discussion of this theme in media reform in general, see Yuezhi Zhao, "The Trajectory of Media Reform," ibid., 34-51.
50. Cited in Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy, 36. For Zhao's discussion of this theme in media reform in general, see Yuezhi Zhao, "The Trajectory of Media Reform," ibid., 34-51.
51. See, for example, "Fourteen Beijing Press Units Send Open Letter to CPC Central Committee and State Council," in Beijing Spring, 1989 - Confrontation and Conflict: The Basic Documents, ed. Michel Oksenberg, Lawrence R. Sullivan, and Mike Lambert (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 383-84.
52. Tyler Cowen, In Praise of Commercial Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); and Benjamin Compaine, "Global Media," Foreign Policy, no. 133 (November/December 2002): 20-28.
53. Tyler Cowen, In Praise of Commercial Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); and Benjamin Compaine, "Global Media," Foreign Policy, no. 133 (November/December 2002): 20-28.
54. Zha, China Pop, 105.
55. Ibid., 25-54. See also Lisa B. Rofel, "Yearnings: Televisual Love and Melodramatic Politics," American Ethnologist 21, no. 4 (November 1994): 700-722.
56. Ibid., 25-54. See also Lisa B. Rofel, "Yearnings: Televisual Love and Melodramatic Politics," American Ethnologist 21, no. 4 (November 1994): 700-722.
57. Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom." For another rich source of data on the development of Chinese television, see Junhao Hong, The Internationalization of Television in China: The Evolution of Ideology, Society and Media Since the Reform (New York: Greenwood Press, 1998).
58. Keane, "As a Hundred Television Formats Bloom." For another rich source of data on the development of Chinese television, see Junhao Hong, The Internationalization of Television in China: The Evolution of Ideology, Society and Media Since the Reform (New York: Greenwood Press, 1998).
59. Colin Sparks and John Tulloch, eds., Tabloid Tales: Global Debates Over Media Standards (New York: Routledge, 2000).
60. Zhao, "The Rich, the Laid-off, and the Criminal in Tabloid Tales," 129.
61. Ibid., 132.
62. Wu, "One Head, Many Mouths," 53.
63. Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 140-41. See also 139-75.
64. Zhao, "From Commercialization to Conglomeration" (cited in note 10 above).
65. Zhao, "Watchdogs on Party Leashes?" 587.
66. Li, "Focus," 29.
67. Stanley Rosen, "Seeking Appropriate Behavior under a Socialist Market Economy: An Analysis of Debates and Controversies Reported in the Beijing Youth Daily," in Lee, Power, Money, and Media, 152-78.
68. Anita Chan, China's Workers Under Assault: The Exploitation of Labor in a Globalizing Economy (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
69. James Farrer, Opening Up: Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 134, 116-49. See also Julie F. Andrews and Kuiyi Shen, "The New Chinese Woman and Lifestyle Magazines in the Late 1990s," in Link, Madsen, and Pickowicz, Popular China, 137-61; and Jean Lock Kunz, "From Maoism to Elle: The Impact of Political Ideology on Fashion Trends in China," International Social Science Journal 11, no. 3 (September 1996): 317-35. For a first-hand account of women's radio that offers insight into the types of stories that some commercial journalists prefer, see Xinran, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002).
70. James Farrer, Opening Up: Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 134, 116-49. See also Julie F. Andrews and Kuiyi Shen, "The New Chinese Woman and Lifestyle Magazines in the Late 1990s," in Link, Madsen, and Pickowicz, Popular China, 137-61; and Jean Lock Kunz, "From Maoism to Elle: The Impact of Political Ideology on Fashion Trends in China," International Social Science Journal 11, no. 3 (September 1996): 317-35. For a first-hand account of women's radio that offers insight into the types of stories that some commercial journalists prefer, see Xinran, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002).
71. James Farrer, Opening Up: Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 134, 116-49. See also Julie F. Andrews and Kuiyi Shen, "The New Chinese Woman and Lifestyle Magazines in the Late 1990s," in Link, Madsen, and Pickowicz, Popular China, 137-61; and Jean Lock Kunz, "From Maoism to Elle: The Impact of Political Ideology on Fashion Trends in China," International Social Science Journal 11, no. 3 (September 1996): 317-35. For a first-hand account of women's radio that offers insight into the types of stories that some commercial journalists prefer, see Xinran, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002).
72. James Farrer, Opening Up: Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 134, 116-49. See also Julie F. Andrews and Kuiyi Shen, "The New Chinese Woman and Lifestyle Magazines in the Late 1990s," in Link, Madsen, and Pickowicz, Popular China, 137-61; and Jean Lock Kunz, "From Maoism to Elle: The Impact of Political Ideology on Fashion Trends in China," International Social Science Journal 11, no. 3 (September 1996): 317-35. For a first-hand account of women's radio that offers insight into the types of stories that some commercial journalists prefer, see Xinran, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices (New York: Pantheon Books, 2002).
73. See Jerome de Kloet, "Rock in a Hard Place: Commercial Fantasies in China's Music Industry," in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 93-104; and Lee Tain-Dow and Huang Yingfen, "'We Are Chinese' - Music and Identity in 'Cultural China'," ibid., 105-15.
74. See Jerome de Kloet, "Rock in a Hard Place: Commercial Fantasies in China's Music Industry," in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 93-104; and Lee Tain-Dow and Huang Yingfen, "'We Are Chinese' - Music and Identity in 'Cultural China'," ibid., 105-15.
75. Rupert Murdoch, "The Consumer is in the Saddle, Driving the Telecommunications Industry," The Times, September 2, 1993.
76. Theodor Adomo and Max Horkheimer, The Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cummings (New York: Continuum, 1972).
77. James Lull, China Turned On: Television, Reform, and Resistance (New York: Routledge, 1991).
78. Barrett McCormick and Qing Liu, "Globalization and the Chinese Media: Technologies, Content, Commerce, and the Prospects for the Public Sphere," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 7.
79. Barrett McCormick and Qing Liu, "Alternate Medias" (Unpublished paper, 2001).
80. Geremie R. Barmé and Sang Ye, "The Great Firewall of China," Wired 5, no. 6 (June 1997).
81. See note 13 above.
82. Jack Linchuan Qiu provided an important step toward these arguments. See his "Virtual Censorship in China: Keeping the Gate Between the Cyberspaces," International Journal of Communications Law and Policy 4 (Winter 1999): 1-25.
83. Nina Hachigian, "Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One-Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet?" in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 35-68. Lynch also discusses the growth of China's telecommunications industries in After the Propaganda State, 98-110. Kathleen Hartford's "West Lake Wired: Shaping Hangzhou's Information Age," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 9, offers a local perspective on official support for information technologies.
84. Nina Hachigian, "Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One-Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet?" in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 35-68. Lynch also discusses the growth of China's telecommunications industries in After the Propaganda State, 98-110. Kathleen Hartford's "West Lake Wired: Shaping Hangzhou's Information Age," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 9, offers a local perspective on official support for information technologies.
85. Nina Hachigian, "Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One-Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet?" in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 35-68. Lynch also discusses the growth of China's telecommunications industries in After the Propaganda State, 98-110. Kathleen Hartford's "West Lake Wired: Shaping Hangzhou's Information Age," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 9, offers a local perspective on official support for information technologies.
86. Shanthi Kalathil, "The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia," in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 19-34. In collaboration with Taylor Boas, Kalathil has further developed these themes in a book, Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003), which unfortunately was not available in time to be considered in this review.
87. Shanthi Kalathil, "The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia," in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 19-34. In collaboration with Taylor Boas, Kalathil has further developed these themes in a book, Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003), which unfortunately was not available in time to be considered in this review.
88. Sheff, China Dawn, 279-80. For a more detailed account of the same incident reaching a similar but more qualified conclusion, see note 59 above. For an argument that falls somewhere between Sheff and Hachigian or Kalathil, see note 31 above.
89. For an account that accurately predicted the adoption of such software a year before it occurred and cited Western firms as the source of the software, see Greg Walton, "China's Golden Shield: Corporations and the Development of Surveillance Technology in the People's Republic of China" (Retrieved in September 2001 from International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development at 〈http://www.ichrdd.ca〉).
90. Chase and Mulvenon, You've Got Dissent! 86.
91. Guo Liang and Bu Wei, "Internet Use in China - A Comparative Analysis," in Zhang and Woesler, China's Digital Dream, 71-94. Guo and Bu also report that there remains a substantial digital divide, with Internet users being typically younger, male, and single, as well as having higher education and income levels.
92. Geremie R. Barmé and Gloria Davies, "Have We Been Noticed Yet? - Intellectual Contestation and the Chinese Web," in Chinese Intellectuals between the Market and the State, ed. Merle Goldman and Gu Xin (forthcoming).
93. Thomas B. Gold, "Go With Your Feelings: Hong Kong and Taiwan Popular Culture in Greater China," The China Quarterly, no. 136 (December 1993): 907-25.
94. See, for example, Michael Curtin, "The Future of Chinese Cinema: Some Lessons from Hong Kong and Taiwan," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 12.
95. Chan, "Television in Greater China," 151-57.
96. See note 56 above.
97. See note 67 above.
98. Stanley Rosen, "The Wolf at the Door: Hollywood and the Film Market in China," in Southern California and the World, ed. Eric J. Heikkila and Rafael Pizarro (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 49-77.
99. Wan Jihong and Richard Kraus, "Hollywood and China as Adversaries and Allies," Pacific Affairs 75, no. 3 (Winter 2002): 419-34.
100. Kevin Latham, "Nothing But the Truth: News Media, Power and Hegemony in South China," The China Quarterly, no. 163 (September 2000): 633-54.
101. Ibid., 643.
102. Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 4-5.
103. Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 1-17.
104. Zhao, "Media and Elusive Democracy in China" (cited in note 10 above).
105. See Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 83-93, for an account of the commercialization of book publishing.
106. Joseph Man Chan, "Administrative Boundaries and Media Marketization: A Comparative Analysis of the Newspaper, TV, and Internet Markets in China," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 8.
107. Zhao, "From Commercialization to Conglomeration" (cited in note 10 above).
108. Zhongdang Pan, "Improvising Reform Activities: The Changing Reality of Journalistic Practice in China," in Lee, Power, Money, and Media, 68-111. See also Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 61-72.
109. Zhongdang Pan, "Improvising Reform Activities: The Changing Reality of Journalistic Practice in China," in Lee, Power, Money, and Media, 68-111. See also Lynch, After the Propaganda State, 61-72.
110. Zhao, Media, Market, and Democracy, 83.
111. Li, "Focus" (cited in note 9 above).
112. Zhou He, "Working with a Dying Ideology: Dissonance and Its Reduction in Chinese Journalism," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; and "How Do the Chinese Media Reduce Organizational Incongruence? Bureaucratic Capitalism in the Name of Communism," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 10.
113. Zhou He, "Working with a Dying Ideology: Dissonance and Its Reduction in Chinese Journalism," Journalism Studies 1, no. 4 (November 2000): 599-616; and "How Do the Chinese Media Reduce Organizational Incongruence? Bureaucratic Capitalism in the Name of Communism," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 10.
114. For accounts in the shift in the style in which the Party's message is pitched, see Geremie Barmé, "CCP™ & ADCULT PRC," The China Journal, no. 41 (January 1999): 1-24.
115. Wanning Sun, "Semiotic Over-Determination or 'Indoctritainment': Television, Citizenship, and the Olympic Games," in Donald, Keane, and Yin, Media in China, 120.
116. Stanely Rosen, "Chinese Media and Youth: Attitudes Toward Nationalism and Internationalism," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 5.
117. Yuezhi Zhao, "'Enter the World': Neo-liberal Globalization, the Dream for a Strong Nation, and Chinese Press Discourses on the WTO," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 2.
118. Zhou He, "How Do the Chinese Media Reduce Organizational Incongruence?". For an earlier account of Internet nationalism, see Christopher Rene Hughes, "Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace," Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 195-209.
119. Zhou He, "How Do the Chinese Media Reduce Organizational Incongruence?". For an earlier account of Internet nationalism, see Christopher Rene Hughes, "Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace," Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 195-209.
120. See note 93 above.
121. See note 78 above; and Zhongdang Pan and Ye Lu, "Localizing Professionalism: Discursive Practices in China's Media Reforms," in Lee, Chinese Media, Global Contexts, chap. 11.
122. For an example of this, see Liu Binyan and Perry Link, eds., People or Monsters: And Other Stories and Reportage from China after Mao (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983).
123. Zittrain and Edelman have recently published an important study of which Internet sites are blocked in China. This is the most reliable study of what gets censored in any Chinese media and marks an important step toward making censorship more visible. See Jonathan Zittrain and Benjamin Edelman, "Empirical Analysis of Internet Filtering in China," at 〈http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/filtering/china/〉, accessed by this author on February 17, 2003.
124. Zhao, "Media and Elusive Democracy in China" (cited in note 10 above).
125. For a list of coercive interventions, including the names of journalists imprisoned and arrested, see "Reporters Without Borders," China Annual Report 2002, available at 〈http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=1468&Valider=OK〉; and "China Internet: A Chronicle of Repression," available at 〈http://www.rsf.fr/chronicle.php3〉, accessed by this author on February 17, 2003.
126. For a list of coercive interventions, including the names of journalists imprisoned and arrested, see "Reporters Without Borders," China Annual Report 2002, available at 〈http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=1468&Valider=OK〉; and "China Internet: A Chronicle of Repression," available at 〈http://www.rsf.fr/chronicle.php3〉, accessed by this author on February 17, 2003.
127. Ma, "Rethinking Media Studies," 30.
128. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition, with an Introduction by Margaret Canovan, second edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 58-73.
129. Mary G. Mazur, "Public Space for Memory in Contemporary Civil Society: Freedom to Learn from the Past?" The China Quarterly, no. 160 (December 1999): 1019-35.