Ethnology and colonial administration in nineteenth-century British India: The question of native crime and criminality

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 201-219

  Brown, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0242297841     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087403005004     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
2. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
3. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
4. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
5. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
6. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
7. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
8. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
9. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
10. See, for example, T. Asad (ed.), Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, London, 1973; Z. Baber, The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization and Colonial Rule in India, New York, 1996; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of Colonial Expansion 1770-1880, Cambridge, 1983; C. Breckenridge, 'The aesthetics and politics of colonial collecting: India at World Fairs', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1989), 32, 195-215; P. Chatterjee, Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, Minneapolis, 1995 ; B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India, Princeton, 1996; W. Ernst and B. Harris (eds.), Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960, London, 1999; J. Gascoigne, Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, the British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution, Cambridge, 1998; T. R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge, 1994; R. Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India, Delhi, 1998.
11. See, for example, M. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830-1914, Cambridge, 1990.
12. Cohn, op. cit. (1).
13. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
14. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
15. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
16. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
17. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
18. See, for example, F. Buchan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 3 vols., London, 1807; W. Hunter, 'Some account of the astronomical labours of Jayasinha, Raja of Ambhere or Jayanagar', Asiatick Researches (1799), 5, 177-211 ; J. Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan: or the Mughal Empire, London, 1792; Capt. D. Richardson, 'An account of the Bazeegurs, a sect commonly denominated Nuts', Asiatick Researches (1808), 7, 451-79; J. Shakespeare, 'Observations regarding Badheks and T'hegs'. Asiatick Researches (1820), 13, 282-92; H. Vansittart, 'The descent of the Afghans from the Jews'. Asiatick Researches (1784), 2, 67-76.
19. C. Bates. 'Race, caste and tribe in central India: the early origins of Indian anthropometry' in The Concept of Race in South Asia (ed. P. Robb), Delhi, 1995, 219-59, 238.
20. Such as the concept of racial progress - see A. Kuper, The Invention of Primitive Society, London, 1988.
21. See S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, New York, 1996.
22. J. Beddoe, 'On the testimony of local phenomena in the West of England to the permanence of racial types', Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London (1865-6), 2, 37-45; J. Beddoe, The Races of Britain: A Contribution to the Anthropology of Western Europe, London, 1885.
23. J. Beddoe, 'On the testimony of local phenomena in the West of England to the permanence of racial types', Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London (1865-6), 2, 37-45; J. Beddoe, The Races of Britain: A Contribution to the Anthropology of Western Europe, London, 1885.
24. G. Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India, Princeton, 1999.
25. R. Inden, Imagining India, Oxford, 1990.
26. Bates, op. cit. (5), 221.
27. Baber, op. cit. (1).
28. Z. Baber, 'Colonizing nature: scientific knowledge, colonial power and the incorporation of India into the modern world-system', British Journal of Sociology (2001), 52, 37-58.
29. Gould, op. cit. (7).
30. 15 Gould, op. cit. (7), 143.
31. Gould, op. cit. (7), 144. For comparison between martial Rajputs and Scandinavian peoples see J. Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, or the Central and Western Rajput States of India, London, 1829-32.
32. Gould, op. cit. (7), 144. For comparison between martial Rajputs and Scandinavian peoples see J. Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, or the Central and Western Rajput States of India, London, 1829-32.
33. Quoted in F. G. Hutchins, The Illusion of Permanence: British Imperialism in India, Princeton, 1967.
34. For a discussion of the relationship between the two, see T. R. Trautmann, Aryans and British India, Berkeley, 1997.
35. Bengal Police, Criminal Identification by Means of Anthropometry, 2nd edn., Calcutta, 1895.
36. T. B. Macaulay, Speeches, Parliamentary and Miscellaneous, 2 vols., London, 1853, i, 183.
37. See, generally, Hutchins, op. cit. (17); R. J. Moore, Liberalism and Indian Politics, 1872-1922, London, 1966 ; U. S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study of Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought, Chicago, 1999; E. Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India, Oxford, 1959.
38. See, generally, Hutchins, op. cit. (17); R. J. Moore, Liberalism and Indian Politics, 1872-1922, London, 1966 ; U. S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study of Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought, Chicago, 1999; E. Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India, Oxford, 1959.
39. See, generally, Hutchins, op. cit. (17); R. J. Moore, Liberalism and Indian Politics, 1872-1922, London, 1966 ; U. S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study of Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought, Chicago, 1999; E. Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India, Oxford, 1959.
40. See, generally, Hutchins, op. cit. (17); R. J. Moore, Liberalism and Indian Politics, 1872-1922, London, 1966 ; U. S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study of Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought, Chicago, 1999; E. Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India, Oxford, 1959.
41. Mehta, op. cit. (21).
42. J. S. Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, London, 1861. Reprinted in Essays on Politics and Society by John Stuart Mill (ed. J. M. Robinson), Toronto, 1977.
43. J. S. Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, London, 1861. Reprinted in Essays on Politics and Society by John Stuart Mill (ed. J. M. Robinson), Toronto, 1977.
44. Mill, Essays, op. cit. (23), 394.
45. Mill, Essays, op. cit. (23), 394.
46. Mill, Essays, op. cit. (23), 396.
47. Mill, Essays, op. cit. (23), 396.
48. Trautmann, op. cit. (18), 123.
49. Mehta, op. cit. (21), Chapter 3.
50. Metcalf, op. cit. (1), Chapter 4.
51. See, for example, B. Chattopadhyay, Crime and Control in Early Colonial Bengal, Calcutta, 2000; J. Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of the Bengal Criminal Law 1769-1817, Wiesbaden, 1983; R. Singha, op. cit. (1).
52. See, for example, B. Chattopadhyay, Crime and Control in Early Colonial Bengal, Calcutta, 2000; J. Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of the Bengal Criminal Law 1769-1817, Wiesbaden, 1983; R. Singha, op. cit. (1).
53. See, for example, B. Chattopadhyay, Crime and Control in Early Colonial Bengal, Calcutta, 2000; J. Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of the Bengal Criminal Law 1769-1817, Wiesbaden, 1983; R. Singha, op. cit. (1).
54. Chattopadhyay, op. cit. (31), p. ix.
55. Mehta, op. cit. (21).
56. Thugs and the crime of thuggee emerged into the light of administrative consciousness around 1810. Thuggee was supposedly a cult form of murder involving strangulation of the victim with a silk scarf and sanctified by the Hindu goddess Kali (sometimes known as Devi). See M. Brown 'Crime, governance and the Company Raj: the discovery of thuggee', British Journal of Criminology (2002), 42, 77-95; Singha, op. cit. (1), 168-228.
57. Thugs and the crime of thuggee emerged into the light of administrative consciousness around 1810. Thuggee was supposedly a cult form of murder involving strangulation of the victim with a silk scarf and sanctified by the Hindu goddess Kali (sometimes known as Devi). See M. Brown 'Crime, governance and the Company Raj: the discovery of thuggee', British Journal of Criminology (2002), 42, 77-95; Singha, op. cit. (1), 168-228.
58. W. H. Sleeman, Ramaseeana, or a Vocabulary of the Peculiar Language used by the Thugs, with an Introduction and Appendix, Descriptive of the System Pursued by that Fraternity and of the Measures which have been Adopted by the Supreme Government of India for its Suppression, Calcutta, 1836, 11.
59. Sleeman, op. cit. (35), 3.
60. Collected at India Office Records, British Library (hereafter IOR) Government of Punjab (Home), November 1875 No. 1 (A).
61. National Archive of India (hereafter NAI) Government of Punjab (Home), July 1879 No. 20 (A).
62. This second object of the bill, which did proceed into law. has received little attention. It was directed at a 'eunuch problem' in the North-Western Provinces.
63. NAI Government of India (hereafter GOI) Legislative Department, November 1871 No. 44-127 (A).
64. IOR Legislative Council Proceedings, V/9/11-13, 410-20.
65. See M. Brown, 'Race, science and the construction of native criminality in colonial India', Theoretical Criminology (2001), 5, 345-68.
66. IOR Legislative Council Proceedings, op. cit. (41), 420.
67. GOI Legislative Department, op. cit. (40), No. 59.
68. GOI Legislative Department, op. cit. (40), No. 126.
69. See, for example, the rules developed in the Punjab. They were published in the Punjab Gazette of 13 February 1873. IOR Government of Punjab (hereafter GOP) (Home) November 1873 No. 14 (A).
70. IOR GOP (Home), March 1874 No. 14 (A).
71. IOR GOP (Home), October 1875 No. 9 (A).
72. IOR GOP (Home), July 1876 No. 6 (A).
73. IOR Legislative Council Proceedings, op. cit. (41), 656.
74. IOR GOP (Home), January 1873 No. 20 (A).
75. V. T. P. Vivian, A Handbook of the Criminal Tribes of the Punjab, Lahore, 1912.
76. For example, Bengal: F. C. Daly, Manual of the Criminal Classes Operating in Bengal, Calcutta, 1916; Central Provinces: G. W. Gayer, Some Criminal Tribes of India and Religious Mendicants, 2nd edn., Saugor, 1910.
77. For example, Bengal: F. C. Daly, Manual of the Criminal Classes Operating in Bengal, Calcutta, 1916; Central Provinces: G. W. Gayer, Some Criminal Tribes of India and Religious Mendicants, 2nd edn., Saugor, 1910.
78. 54 Vivian, op. cit. (52), 2.
79. Vivian, op. cit. (52), 4.
80. Vivian, op. cit. (52), 5.
81. Vivian, op. cit. (52), 6.
82. 58 Vivian, op. cit. (52), 8.
83. 59 Vivian, op. cit. (52), 8-9.
84. 60 Vivian, op. cit. (52), 10.
85. H. K. Kaul and L. L. Tomkins, Report on Questions Relating to the Administration of Criminal and Wandering Tribes in the Punjab, Lahore, 1914.
86. L. Zastoupil, John Stuart Mill and India, Stanford, 1994, 8.