Playing with fire: The global threat presented by brominated flame retardants justifies urgent substitution

Environment International

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2003, Pages 725-734

  Santillo, David ^a   Johnston, Paul ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Brominated flame retardants; Fire safety; Organic pollutants

Indexed keywords

BROMINE COMPOUNDS; CONTAMINATION; FIRE PROTECTION; FLAME RETARDANTS; ORGANIC COMPOUNDS;

ECOSPHERE;

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING;

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL; FLAME RETARDANT; ORGANOBROMINE DERIVATIVE;

BIOSAFETY; BROMINATION; CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN; FIRE PROTECTION; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; ORGANIC POLLUTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0242287847     PISSN: 01604120     EISSN: 18736750     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00115-6     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. Alaee M, Wenning RJ. The significance of brominated flame retardants in the environment: current understanding, issues and challenges. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):579-92.
2. Albinson B. Fire prevention-more than brominated flame retardants. In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 391-3.
3. Allchin C, Morris S. The determination and occurrence of three groups of brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers, tetrabromobisphenol A and hexabromocyclododecane) in samples of aquatic origin from the UK. In: Readman J, Worsfold P, editors. Proceedings of ISEAC 32, international symposium on the environment and analytical chemistry, Plymouth, 17-20 June 2002; 2002. p. 15.
4. Anderson O, Blomkist G. Polybrominated aromatic pollutants found in fish in Sweden. Chemosphere 1981;10:1051-60.
5. Arias PA. Brominated flame retardants-an overview. In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 17-9.
6. Bergman Å. Brominated flame retardants-a burning issue. Organohalogen Compounds 2000;47:36-40.
7. Bergman Å, Ostman C, Nyborn R, Sjödin A, Carlsson H, Nilsson U, et al. Flame retardants and plasticisers on particulate in the modern computerised indoor environment. Organohalogen Compounds 1997;33: 414-9.
8. Cairns J. Defining goals and conditions for a sustainable world. Environmental Health Perspectives 1997;105(11):1164-70.
9. CEC (Commission of the European Communities). Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending for the 24th time Council Directive 76/769/EEC relating to restrictions on the marketing and use of certain dangerous substances and preparations (pentabromodiphenyl ether). COM(2001) 12 final, 2001/0018 (COD): 8 pp.; 2001a.
10. CEC (Commission of the European Communities) Commission White Paper: Strategy for a future Chemicals Policy (COM(2001) 88 final): 32 pp.; 2001b.
11. Christensen JH, Glasius M, Pecseli M, Platz J, Pritzl G. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in marine fish and blue mussels from southern Greenland. Chemosphere 2002;47(6):631-8.
12. de Boer J, Wester PG, Klamer HJC, Lewis WE, Boon JP. Do flame retardants threaten ocean life? Nature 1998;394:28-9 [2 July].
13. de Boer J, de Boer K, Boon JP. Polybrominated biphenyls and diphenylethers. Chapter 4. In: Paasivirta J, editor. The handbook of environmental chemistry, volume 3, part K, new types of persistent halogenated compounds. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2000. p. 61-95.
14. de Boer J, Allchin C, Law R, Zegers B, Boon JP. Method for the analysis of polybrominated diphenylethers in sediments and biota. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 2001;20(10):591-9.
15. de Wit CA. An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):583-624.
16. EC (European Community). Common Position (EC) No 19/2002 of 4 December 2001 adopted by the Council, acting in accordance with the procedure referred to in Article 251 of the Treaty establishing the European Community, with a view to adopting a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the restrictions of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS). Official Journal of the European Communities, 2002/C 90/E 2002;45:12-8.
17. EEA (European Environment Agency). In: Harremoës P, Gee D, MacGarvin M, et al., editors. Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896-2000, Environmental issue report no. 22. Copenhagen: OPOCE (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities); 2001. 211 pp.
18. Eriksson P, Viberg H, Ankarberg E, Jakobsson E, Örn U, Fredriksson A. Polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs): a novel class of environmental neurotoxicants in our environment. In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al, editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 71-3.
19. Hale RC, La Guardia MJ, Harvey E, Mainor TM. Potential role of fire retardant-treated polyurethane foam as a source of brominated diphenyl ethers to the US environment. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):729-35.
20. Holm S, Harris J. Precautionary principle stifles discovery. Nature 1999; 400(6743):398.
21. Ikonomou MG, Rayne S, Addison RF. Exponential increases of the brominated flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, in the Canadian Arctic from 1981 to 2000. Environmental Science and Technology 2002;36(9):1886-92.
22. IPCS. Polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, Environmental Health Criteria, No. 205, International Programme on Chemical Safety, UNEP/ILO/WHO, ISBN 92 4 157205 1: 303 pp.; 1998.
23. Jakobsson K, Thuresson K, Rylander L, Sjödin A, Hagmar L, Bergman Å. Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and tetrabromobisphenol A among computer technicians. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):709-16.
24. Jansson B. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs). In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 23-5.
25. Jansson B, Asplund L, Olsson M. Brominated flame retardants-ubiquitous environmental pollutants? Chemosphere 1987;16(10-12): 2343-9.
26. Jones KC, Alcock RE, Kalantzi OI, Thomas GO, Asplund L, Kierkegaard A. Environmental measurements and the global distribution of PBDEs. In: Asplund L, Bergman A, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 163-6.
27. Klasson-Welder E, Hovander L, Bergman Å. New organohalogens in human plasma-identification and quantification. Organohalogen Compounds 1997;33:420-5.
28. Lassen C, Lokke S, Hansen LI. Brominated flame retardants: substance flow analysis and substitution feasibility study. Danish Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Project No. 494, Copenhagen, ISBN 87-7909-415-5: 240 pp.; 1999.
29. Leonards PEG, Santillo D, Brigden K, van der Ween I, Hesselingen JV, de Boer J, et al. Brominated flame retardants in office dust samples. In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 299-302.
30. Lerche D, van de Plassche E, Schwegler A, Balk F. Selecting chemical substances for the UN-ECE POP Protocol. Chemosphere 2002;47: 617-30.
31. Meerts IATM, Marsh G, van Leeuwen-Bol I, Luijks EAC, Jakobsson E, Bergman Å, et al. Interaction of polybrominated diphenyl ether metabolites (PBDE-OH) with human transthyretin in vitro. Organohalogen Compounds 1998;37:309-12.
32. Meerts IATM, Letcher RJ, Hoving S, Marsh G, Bergman Å, Lemmen JG, et al. In vitro estrogenicity of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, hydroxylated PBDEs and polybrominated bisphenol A compounds. Environmental Health Perspectives 2001;109(4):399-407.
33. Mörck A, Klasson-Wehler E. Metabolism of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) in the rat. Organohalogen Compounds 2001;52:9-12.
34. NSC (5th North Sea Conference). Bergen Declaration: 5th International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea, 20-21 March 2002, Bergen, Norway. Ministry of the Environment, Oslo, ISBN 82-457-0361-3: 171 pp.; 2002.
35. Öberg K, Warman K, Öberg T. Distribution and levels of brominated flame retardants in sewage sludge. Chemosphere 2002;48:805-9.
36. Ohta S, Ishizuka D, Nishimura H, Nakao T, Aozasa O, Shimidzu Y, et al. Comparison of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish, vegetables and meats and levels in human milk of nursing women in Japan. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):689-96.
37. OSPAR (OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic). OSPAR strategy with regard to hazardous substances. OSPAR 99/14/1 Annex 34; 1998.
38. OSPAR (OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic). The sintra statement (final declaration of the ministerial meeting of the OSPAR commission, Sintra 20-24th July 1998). OSPAR 98/14/1 Annex 45; 1998.
39. OSPAR (OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic). Certain brominated flame retardants-polybrominated diphenylethers, polybrominated biphenyls, hexabromocyclododecane. OSPAR priority substances series. London: OSPAR Commission; 2001. 25 pp.
40. Palm A, Cousins IT, MacKay D, Tysklind M, Metcalfe C, Alaee M. Assessing the environmental fate of chemicals of emerging concern: a case study of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environmental Pollution 2002;117:195-213.
41. Peltola J, Yla-Mononen L. Pentabromodiphenyl ether as a global POP. TemaNord 2001, vol. 579. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers; 2001. ISBN 92-893-0690-4: 78 pp.
42. Raad van State (Dutch Council of State, The Hague). Verdict on case numbers 200200259/2 and 200200255, January 29 2003, www.raadvanstate.nl; 2003.
43. Santillo D, Johnston P. Is there a role for risk assessment within precautionary legislation? Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 1999; 5(5):923-32.
44. Santillo D, Johnston P. Greenpeace international comments to the commission white paper: strategy for a future chemicals policy (COM(2001) 88 final). Greenpeace Research Laboratories, University of Exeter, UK, March 2001: 6 pp.; 2001.
45. Santillo D, Johnston P, Singhofen A. The way forward out of the chemicals crisis: an alternative approach, based on the precautionary principle, to the regulation of the manufacturing, marketing and use of chemicals in Europe. Amsterdam: Publ. Greenpeace International; 1999. ISBN: 90-73361-49-4: 23 pp.
46. SCNGCP (Swedish Committee on New Guidelines on Chemicals Policy). Non-hazardous products: proposals for implementation of new guidelines on chemicals policy. Government Official Reports SOU 2000:53, Ministry of the Environment, Stockholm: 596 pp.; 2000.
47. Sellström U, Jansson B, Kierkegaard A, de Wit C, Odsjo T, Olsson M. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in biological samples from the Swedish environment. Chemosphere 1993;26(9):1703-18.
48. Sellström U, Lindberg P, Hägglund L, de Wit C. Higher brominated PBDEs found in eggs of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) breeding in Sweden. In: Asplund L, Bergman Å, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 159-62.
49. She J, Petreas M, Winkler J, Visita P, McKinney M, Kopec D. PBDEs in the San Francisco Bay Area: measurements in harbor seal blubber and human breast adipose tissue. Chemosphere 2002;46(5):697-707.
50. Sjödin A, Hagmar L, Klasson-Wehler E, Kronholm-Diab K, Jakobsson E, Bergman Å. Flame retardant exposure: polybrominated diphenyl ethers in blood from Swedish workers. Environmental Health Perspectives 1999;107(8):643-8.
51. Söderström G, Marklund S. PBCDD and PBCDF from incineration of waste-containing brominated flame retardants. Environmental Science and Technology 2002;36(9):1959-64.
52. Spiegelstein M. Brominated compounds: addressing the gap in scientific knowledge. In: de Boer J, Leonards PEG, Boon J, Law RJ, editors. Proceedings of BSEF workshop on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): global distribution of PBDEs, ljmuiden, Netherlands; 2000.
53. Stirling A. On science and precaution in the management of technological risk. Synthesis report of studies conducted by Renn O, Klinke A, Rip A, Sato A, Stirling A, EC Forward Studies Unit/ESTO Network, European Commission; 1999.
54. Thomsen C, Lundanes E, Becher G. Brominated flame retardants in archived serum samples from Norway: a study on temporal trends and the role of age. Environmental Science and Technology 2002;36(7):1414-8.
55. Tickner J. Precautionary conflict. Environmental Science and Technology 2001;36(7):121A.
56. Tysklind M, Sellström U, Söderström G, de Wit C. Abiotic transformation of polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs): photolytic debromination of decabromo diphenyl ether. In: Asplund L, Bergman A, de Wit C, et al., editors. Proceedings of the second international workshop on brominated flame retardants, BFR 2001, Stockholm, May 14-16 2001; 2001. p. 51-4.
57. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). Final act of the conference of plenipotentiaries on the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants, UNEP/POPS/CONF/4, 5 June 2001; 2001. 44 pp.
58. van Leeuwen SPJ. Brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated alkanes, tris(4-chlorophenyl) methanol and tris(4-chlorophenyl) methane in mussels, whale meat and whale blubber. RIVO (The Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research) Report Number C023/02, 23 April 2002: 12 pp. plus appendices; 2002.
59. Watanabe I, Sakai S. Environmental release and behaviour of brominated flame retardants-an overview. Organohalogen Compounds 2001;52: 1-4.
60. Wichmann H, Dettmer FT, Bahadir M. Thermal formation of PBDD/F from tetrabromobisphenol A-a comparison of polymer linked TBBP A with its additive incorporation in thermoplastics. Chemosphere 2002;47(4): 349-55.