From Hazard to Blessing to Tragedy: Representations of Miscarriage in Twentieth-Century America

Feminist Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 357-378+477

  Reagan, Leslie J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

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EID: 0142200362     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. The folder I received in 1995 from the Carle Clinic Association of Urbana, Illinois, is produced and copyrighted by RTS Bereavement Services, La Crosse, Wisconsin, Lutheran Hospital, 1984.
2. Wendy Simonds, "Confessions of Loss: Maternal Grief in True Story, 1920-1985," in Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History, ed. Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997); Wendy Simonds and Barbara Katz Rothman, Centuries of Solace: Expressions of Maternal Grief in Popular Literature (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 1-2; Raymond A. Anselment, " 'A Heart-Terrifying Sorrow': An Occasional Piece on Poetry of Miscarriage," Papers on Language and Literature 33 (winter 1997): 13-46; Linda L. Layne, "Breaking the Silence: An Agenda for a Feminist Discourse of Pregnancy Loss," Feminist Studies 23 (summer 1997): 300-4.
3. Wendy Simonds, "Confessions of Loss: Maternal Grief in True Story, 1920-1985," in Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History, ed. Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997); Wendy Simonds and Barbara Katz Rothman, Centuries of Solace: Expressions of Maternal Grief in Popular Literature (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 1-2; Raymond A. Anselment, " 'A Heart-Terrifying Sorrow': An Occasional Piece on Poetry of Miscarriage," Papers on Language and Literature 33 (winter 1997): 13-46; Linda L. Layne, "Breaking the Silence: An Agenda for a Feminist Discourse of Pregnancy Loss," Feminist Studies 23 (summer 1997): 300-4.
4. Wendy Simonds, "Confessions of Loss: Maternal Grief in True Story, 1920-1985," in Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History, ed. Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997); Wendy Simonds and Barbara Katz Rothman, Centuries of Solace: Expressions of Maternal Grief in Popular Literature (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 1-2; Raymond A. Anselment, " 'A Heart-Terrifying Sorrow': An Occasional Piece on Poetry of Miscarriage," Papers on Language and Literature 33 (winter 1997): 13-46; Linda L. Layne, "Breaking the Silence: An Agenda for a Feminist Discourse of Pregnancy Loss," Feminist Studies 23 (summer 1997): 300-4.
5. Wendy Simonds, "Confessions of Loss: Maternal Grief in True Story, 1920-1985," in Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History, ed. Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997); Wendy Simonds and Barbara Katz Rothman, Centuries of Solace: Expressions of Maternal Grief in Popular Literature (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 1-2; Raymond A. Anselment, " 'A Heart-Terrifying Sorrow': An Occasional Piece on Poetry of Miscarriage," Papers on Language and Literature 33 (winter 1997): 13-46; Linda L. Layne, "Breaking the Silence: An Agenda for a Feminist Discourse of Pregnancy Loss," Feminist Studies 23 (summer 1997): 300-4.
6. This paper is based on an analysis of all popular periodical articles (several hundred) identified through the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, as well as the social science and medical journal literature on miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) located through the Social Sciences Index and the Index-Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon General's Office from 1900 through 1999.
7. Jan Lewis, "Mother's Love: The Construction of an Emotion in Nineteenth- Century America," in Mothers and Motherhood, 52-71; Nancy Schrom Dye and Daniel Blake Smith, "Mother Love and Infant Death, 1750-1920," Journal of American History 73 (September 1986): 329-53.
8. Jan Lewis, "Mother's Love: The Construction of an Emotion in Nineteenth- Century America," in Mothers and Motherhood, 52-71; Nancy Schrom Dye and Daniel Blake Smith, "Mother Love and Infant Death, 1750-1920," Journal of American History 73 (September 1986): 329-53.
9. Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
10. Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
11. "For the Children's Sake," Birth Control Review 3 (January 1919): 6; Margaret Sanger, Motherhood in Bondage (New York: Brentano's Publishers, 1928), 309, 141, 142.
12. "For the Children's Sake," Birth Control Review 3 (January 1919): 6; Margaret Sanger, Motherhood in Bondage (New York: Brentano's Publishers, 1928), 309, 141, 142.
13. Sanger, 135; see also chap. 6, "Wasted Efforts."
14. Sanger, 135; see also chap. 6, "Wasted Efforts."
15. Ibid., 138, 142.
16. "Hard Facts," Birth Control Review 3 (November 1919): 15. See also Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 97-98.
17. "Hard Facts," Birth Control Review 3 (November 1919): 15. See also Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 97-98.
18. Maxine Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," Good Housekeeping, September 1940, 30.
19. Jack M. Swartout, "When Spontaneous Abortion Occurs," Today's Health, July 1952, 29, 52.
20. Maxine Davis, "Miscarriage," Good Housekeeping, December 1949, 18; Maya Pines, "New Ways to Prevent Miscarriage," Redbook, April 1963, 67; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30.
21. Maxine Davis, "Miscarriage," Good Housekeeping, December 1949, 18; Maya Pines, "New Ways to Prevent Miscarriage," Redbook, April 1963, 67; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30.
22. Maxine Davis, "Miscarriage," Good Housekeeping, December 1949, 18; Maya Pines, "New Ways to Prevent Miscarriage," Redbook, April 1963, 67; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30.
23. For example, one article reports, "After two miscarriages, Kate and Felix are happy-with Felix junior at the football age and a brand-new baby." Quotation in Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30.
24. For example, one article reports, "After two miscarriages, Kate and Felix are happy-with Felix junior at the football age and a brand-new baby." Quotation in Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30.
25. One article concluded with the remark that numerous medical records beginning with "four miscarriages" ended with "the triumphant notation, normal delivery of baby boy." Quotation in Gretta Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," Ladies Home Journal, March 1941, 62; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66. Article from True Story, October 1954, as cited by Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 62.
26. One article concluded with the remark that numerous medical records beginning with "four miscarriages" ended with "the triumphant notation, normal delivery of baby boy." Quotation in Gretta Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," Ladies Home Journal, March 1941, 62; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66. Article from True Story, October 1954, as cited by Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 62.
27. One article concluded with the remark that numerous medical records beginning with "four miscarriages" ended with "the triumphant notation, normal delivery of baby boy." Quotation in Gretta Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," Ladies Home Journal, March 1941, 62; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66. Article from True Story, October 1954, as cited by Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 62.
28. One article concluded with the remark that numerous medical records beginning with "four miscarriages" ended with "the triumphant notation, normal delivery of baby boy." Quotation in Gretta Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," Ladies Home Journal, March 1941, 62; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66. Article from True Story, October 1954, as cited by Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 62.
29. One article concluded with the remark that numerous medical records beginning with "four miscarriages" ended with "the triumphant notation, normal delivery of baby boy." Quotation in Gretta Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," Ladies Home Journal, March 1941, 62; Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66. Article from True Story, October 1954, as cited by Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 62.
30. Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30-31; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 22; Herman N. Bundesen, "Miscarriage," Ladies Home Journal, October 1952, 193.
31. Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30-31; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 22; Herman N. Bundesen, "Miscarriage," Ladies Home Journal, October 1952, 193.
32. Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 30-31; Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 22; Herman N. Bundesen, "Miscarriage," Ladies Home Journal, October 1952, 193.
33. Bundesen, "Miscarriage," 194.
34. Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 60. "Dot's" experience, as told in True Story, was no different than the middle-class model; she, too, went to a doctor and had an operation to prevent miscarriage before she succeeded in having a son. In her case, however, she describes going against her husband's wishes and having emotional struggles with him. Example cited in Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122. The highly emotional content of the articles in True Story differentiates them from articles in mainstream magazines.
35. Palmer, "Saving the Unborn," 60. "Dot's" experience, as told in True Story, was no different than the middle-class model; she, too, went to a doctor and had an operation to prevent miscarriage before she succeeded in having a son. In her case, however, she describes going against her husband's wishes and having emotional struggles with him. Example cited in Simonds, "Confessions of Love," 122. The highly emotional content of the articles in True Story differentiates them from articles in mainstream magazines.
36. Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66; Alan F. Guttmacher, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Parents Magazine, October 1955, 127.
37. Davis, "Most Women Can Have Babies," 66; Alan F. Guttmacher, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Parents Magazine, October 1955, 127.
38. Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 233-34.
39. Frederick J. Taussig, Abortion, Spontaneous and Induced: Medical and Social Aspects (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby, 1936), 222-38; Reagan, 77-79, 284, n. 110, 285, n. 113.
40. Frederick J. Taussig, Abortion, Spontaneous and Induced: Medical and Social Aspects (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby, 1936), 222-38; Reagan, 77-79, 284, n. 110, 285, n. 113.
41. Evan McLeod Wylie, "Why You Won't Lose Your Baby," Good Housekeeping, March 1960, 118-19; Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1985), 193-94.
42. Evan McLeod Wylie, "Why You Won't Lose Your Baby," Good Housekeeping, March 1960, 118-19; Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1985), 193-94.
43. Regina G. Runzel, "White Neurosis, Black Pathology: Constructing Out-of -Wedlock Pregnancy in the Wartime and Postwar United States," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 304-31; Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Suzie: Single Pregnancy and Race before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992); Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
44. Regina G. Runzel, "White Neurosis, Black Pathology: Constructing Out-of -Wedlock Pregnancy in the Wartime and Postwar United States," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 304-31; Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Suzie: Single Pregnancy and Race before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992); Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
45. Regina G. Runzel, "White Neurosis, Black Pathology: Constructing Out-of -Wedlock Pregnancy in the Wartime and Postwar United States," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 304-31; Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Suzie: Single Pregnancy and Race before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992); Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
46. Regina G. Runzel, "White Neurosis, Black Pathology: Constructing Out-of -Wedlock Pregnancy in the Wartime and Postwar United States," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 304-31; Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Suzie: Single Pregnancy and Race before Roe v. Wade (New York: Routledge, 1992); Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
47. Marsh and Ronner, 94-96.
48. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
49. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
50. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
51. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
52. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
53. "The Doctor Talks about Miscarriage," McCalls, March 1957, 4, 78. Simonds finds similar medical advice in True Story, "Confessions of Loss," 125. Medical literature attributed miscarriages to female psychology into the 1970s; see Theodore Mandy et al., "The Psychic Aspects of Sterility and Abortion," Southern Medical Journal 44 (November 1951): 1054-59; Edward C. Mann, "Psychiatric Investigation of Habitual Abortion," Obstetrics and Gynecology 7 (June 1956): 589-601; Carl T. Javert, "Psychosomatic Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Medical Times 90 (February 1962): 115-21; Myron Silverman, "Psychological Aspects of Habitual Abortion," Psychiatric Communications 13 (1970): 35-43.
54. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), 38-42; Harold Speert, Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History (Chicago: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1980), 240-43; Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and the "The Problem of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 160, 244-45; Melinda Beck et al., "A Medical Mystery," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 50.
55. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), 38-42; Harold Speert, Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History (Chicago: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1980), 240-43; Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and the "The Problem of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 160, 244-45; Melinda Beck et al., "A Medical Mystery," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 50.
56. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), 38-42; Harold Speert, Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History (Chicago: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1980), 240-43; Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and the "The Problem of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 160, 244-45; Melinda Beck et al., "A Medical Mystery," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 50.
57. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978), 38-42; Harold Speert, Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History (Chicago: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1980), 240-43; Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and the "The Problem of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 160, 244-45; Melinda Beck et al., "A Medical Mystery," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 50.
58. Personal communication, Anonymous.
59. Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997); Anthony Bale, "Women's Toxic Experience," in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland University Press, 1990), 411-39; Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993), chap. 6.
60. Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997); Anthony Bale, "Women's Toxic Experience," in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland University Press, 1990), 411-39; Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993), chap. 6.
61. Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997); Anthony Bale, "Women's Toxic Experience," in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima Apple (New York: Garland University Press, 1990), 411-39; Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993), chap. 6.
62. Transcripts of USA before the Environmental Protection Agency, Hearing of 2,4,5-T and Silvex, the Dow Chemical Company, Docket no. 415, 30 May 1980, Proceedings Case Files, Office of Administrative Law Judges, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 7057-58, 7071, 7042.
63. Joseph N. Bell, "What Happened to My Baby?" McCalls, January 1980, 12, 15-16, 22; "Bonnie Hill: Confronting the Chemical Goliaths, " Mother Earth News, November/ December 1981, 17-20, 22, 24; Carol Van Strum, A Bitter Fog: Herbicides and Human Rights (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985), 148-78.
64. Joseph N. Bell, "What Happened to My Baby?" McCalls, January 1980, 12, 15-16, 22; "Bonnie Hill: Confronting the Chemical Goliaths, " Mother Earth News, November/ December 1981, 17-20, 22, 24; Carol Van Strum, A Bitter Fog: Herbicides and Human Rights (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985), 148-78.
65. Joseph N. Bell, "What Happened to My Baby?" McCalls, January 1980, 12, 15-16, 22; "Bonnie Hill: Confronting the Chemical Goliaths, " Mother Earth News, November/ December 1981, 17-20, 22, 24; Carol Van Strum, A Bitter Fog: Herbicides and Human Rights (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1985), 148-78.
66. Marion Roach Smith, "Wager or Dare?" American Health (January/February 1994): 28. See also Linda L. Layne, "True Gifts from God: Motherhood, Sacrifice, and Enrichment in the Case of Pregnancy Loss," in Transformative Motherhood: On Giving and Getting in a Consumer Culture, ed. Linda L. Layne (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 167-75; Gail H. Landsman, "Reconstructing Motherhood in the Age of 'Perfect' Babies: Mothers of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities," Signs 24 (autumn 1998): 69-99; "Learning from the Loss," Newsweek, 24 Mar. 1986, 67.
67. Marion Roach Smith, "Wager or Dare?" American Health (January/February 1994): 28. See also Linda L. Layne, "True Gifts from God: Motherhood, Sacrifice, and Enrichment in the Case of Pregnancy Loss," in Transformative Motherhood: On Giving and Getting in a Consumer Culture, ed. Linda L. Layne (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 167-75; Gail H. Landsman, "Reconstructing Motherhood in the Age of 'Perfect' Babies: Mothers of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities," Signs 24 (autumn 1998): 69-99; "Learning from the Loss," Newsweek, 24 Mar. 1986, 67.
68. Marion Roach Smith, "Wager or Dare?" American Health (January/February 1994): 28. See also Linda L. Layne, "True Gifts from God: Motherhood, Sacrifice, and Enrichment in the Case of Pregnancy Loss," in Transformative Motherhood: On Giving and Getting in a Consumer Culture, ed. Linda L. Layne (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 167-75; Gail H. Landsman, "Reconstructing Motherhood in the Age of 'Perfect' Babies: Mothers of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities," Signs 24 (autumn 1998): 69-99; "Learning from the Loss," Newsweek, 24 Mar. 1986, 67.
69. Marion Roach Smith, "Wager or Dare?" American Health (January/February 1994): 28. See also Linda L. Layne, "True Gifts from God: Motherhood, Sacrifice, and Enrichment in the Case of Pregnancy Loss," in Transformative Motherhood: On Giving and Getting in a Consumer Culture, ed. Linda L. Layne (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 167-75; Gail H. Landsman, "Reconstructing Motherhood in the Age of 'Perfect' Babies: Mothers of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities," Signs 24 (autumn 1998): 69-99; "Learning from the Loss," Newsweek, 24 Mar. 1986, 67.
70. Katha Pollitt, '"Fetal Rights': A New Assault on Feminism," in Bad Mothers: The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 285-98; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Random House, 1997); Janet Golden, '"An Argument That Goes Back to the Womb': The Demedicalization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 1973-1992," Journal of Social History 33 (winter 1999): 269-98; Annette R. Appell, "On Fixing 'Bad' Mothers and Saving Their Children," in Bad Mothers, 356-80.
71. Katha Pollitt, '"Fetal Rights': A New Assault on Feminism," in Bad Mothers: The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 285-98; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Random House, 1997); Janet Golden, '"An Argument That Goes Back to the Womb': The Demedicalization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 1973-1992," Journal of Social History 33 (winter 1999): 269-98; Annette R. Appell, "On Fixing 'Bad' Mothers and Saving Their Children," in Bad Mothers, 356-80.
72. Katha Pollitt, '"Fetal Rights': A New Assault on Feminism," in Bad Mothers: The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 285-98; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Random House, 1997); Janet Golden, '"An Argument That Goes Back to the Womb': The Demedicalization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 1973-1992," Journal of Social History 33 (winter 1999): 269-98; Annette R. Appell, "On Fixing 'Bad' Mothers and Saving Their Children," in Bad Mothers, 356-80.
73. Katha Pollitt, '"Fetal Rights': A New Assault on Feminism," in Bad Mothers: The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 285-98; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Random House, 1997); Janet Golden, '"An Argument That Goes Back to the Womb': The Demedicalization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 1973-1992," Journal of Social History 33 (winter 1999): 269-98; Annette R. Appell, "On Fixing 'Bad' Mothers and Saving Their Children," in Bad Mothers, 356-80.
74. Based on the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, coverage of miscarriage in popular periodicals jumped from four articles during the 1970s to nearly fifty articles during the 1980s. For an early and influential book, see Susan Borg and Judith Lasker, When Pregnancy Fails: Families Coping with Miscarriage, Stillbirth, and Infant Death (Boston: Beacon Press, 1981).
75. See illustration by Debbie Dreschsler accompanying Mary Scott Welch and Dorothy Hermann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood," Ms., February 1980, 14; Perry-Lynn Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," Parents, April 1987, 132-33; Janice Billingsley, "The Child Who Never Arrived," Ladies' Home Journal, November 1980, 32; Anna Quindlen, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Glamour, June 1981, 233; Sheila Weller, "Miscarriage: Understanding the Special Grief Women Feel," Glamour, November 1988, 88.
76. See illustration by Debbie Dreschsler accompanying Mary Scott Welch and Dorothy Hermann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood," Ms., February 1980, 14; Perry-Lynn Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," Parents, April 1987, 132-33; Janice Billingsley, "The Child Who Never Arrived," Ladies' Home Journal, November 1980, 32; Anna Quindlen, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Glamour, June 1981, 233; Sheila Weller, "Miscarriage: Understanding the Special Grief Women Feel," Glamour, November 1988, 88.
77. See illustration by Debbie Dreschsler accompanying Mary Scott Welch and Dorothy Hermann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood," Ms., February 1980, 14; Perry-Lynn Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," Parents, April 1987, 132-33; Janice Billingsley, "The Child Who Never Arrived," Ladies' Home Journal, November 1980, 32; Anna Quindlen, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Glamour, June 1981, 233; Sheila Weller, "Miscarriage: Understanding the Special Grief Women Feel," Glamour, November 1988, 88.
78. See illustration by Debbie Dreschsler accompanying Mary Scott Welch and Dorothy Hermann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood," Ms., February 1980, 14; Perry-Lynn Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," Parents, April 1987, 132-33; Janice Billingsley, "The Child Who Never Arrived," Ladies' Home Journal, November 1980, 32; Anna Quindlen, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Glamour, June 1981, 233; Sheila Weller, "Miscarriage: Understanding the Special Grief Women Feel," Glamour, November 1988, 88.
79. See illustration by Debbie Dreschsler accompanying Mary Scott Welch and Dorothy Hermann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood," Ms., February 1980, 14; Perry-Lynn Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," Parents, April 1987, 132-33; Janice Billingsley, "The Child Who Never Arrived," Ladies' Home Journal, November 1980, 32; Anna Quindlen, "The Truth about Miscarriage," Glamour, June 1981, 233; Sheila Weller, "Miscarriage: Understanding the Special Grief Women Feel," Glamour, November 1988, 88.
80. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
81. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
82. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
83. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
84. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
85. Kim Wright Wiley, "After Miscarriage: Healing the Hurt," Health, May 1987, 82; "The Grief of Miscarriage: How to Cope," Glamour, March 1984, 77, quoting Ingrid Kohn of the Pregnancy Loss Support Program. See also "Miscarriages," Newsweek, 15 Aug. 1988, 48; Leslie Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," Parents, February 1994, 66, 69; Tim Page, "Life Miscarried," New York Times, 27 Jan. 1985, 50. For a first-person account of an African-American man's description of a premature birth and infant loss, see Roger Witherspoon, "Father's Day," Essence, June 1981, 70-71, 117, 120.
86. All of the women depicted in the articles from the 1980s-1990s appear to be white; non are African American. Layne describes the pregnancy-loss movement as white and middle-class in "True Gifts from God," 177. Quotation from Linda L. Layne, "Mother-hood Lost: Cultural Dimensions of Miscarriage and Stillbirth in America," Women and Health 16, nos. 3/4 (1990): 79, 80.
87. Martha Pike, "In Memory of: Artifacts Relating to Mourning Culture in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American Culture 3 (winter 1980): 642-59; Sylvia D. Hoffert, Private Matters: American Attitudes toward Childbearing and Infant Nurture in the Urban North, 1800-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), chap. 5; Jeffrey Steele, "The Gender and Racial Politics of Mourning in Antebellum America," in An Emotional History of the United States, ed. Peter N. Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 91-93.
88. Martha Pike, "In Memory of: Artifacts Relating to Mourning Culture in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American Culture 3 (winter 1980): 642-59; Sylvia D. Hoffert, Private Matters: American Attitudes toward Childbearing and Infant Nurture in the Urban North, 1800-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), chap. 5; Jeffrey Steele, "The Gender and Racial Politics of Mourning in Antebellum America," in An Emotional History of the United States, ed. Peter N. Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 91-93.
89. Martha Pike, "In Memory of: Artifacts Relating to Mourning Culture in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of American Culture 3 (winter 1980): 642-59; Sylvia D. Hoffert, Private Matters: American Attitudes toward Childbearing and Infant Nurture in the Urban North, 1800-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), chap. 5; Jeffrey Steele, "The Gender and Racial Politics of Mourning in Antebellum America," in An Emotional History of the United States, ed. Peter N. Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 91-93.
90. Although the contemporary movement lumps all of these "losses" together, such a melding is historically new. We should also analyze these occurrences separately. Simonds tabulates by type the articles on "maternal loss" that were published in True Story during the twentieth century. Examination of her data supports my argument that the definition of maternal loss has changed over time and is socially and politically produced. Until the 1980s, articles about the death of children outnumbered articles covering every other type of "loss." The first coverage of miscarriage in True Story did not appear until the mid-1950s. Simonds, "Confessions of Loss," 117, table 1.
91. First three quoted phrases in Julie Rose, "Mourning a Miscarriage," Newsweek, 3 Aug. 1987, 7; last phrase in "Miscarriages," 46, 48-49 (photograph of cemetery on 46).
92. First three quoted phrases in Julie Rose, "Mourning a Miscarriage," Newsweek, 3 Aug. 1987, 7; last phrase in "Miscarriages," 46, 48-49 (photograph of cemetery on 46).
93. Layne, "Motherhood Lost," 69-98; Esther B. Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies, New Rites of Mourning," New York Times, 25 Jan. 1998, 1, 22; Linda L. Layne, " 'I Remember the Day I Shopped for Your Layette': Consumer Goods, Fetuses, and Feminism in the Context of Pregnancy Loss," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 251-78; Lynda Zimmer, "Share the Loss," Illinois News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana), 18 Dec. 1996, B-1; "Miscarriages," 48-49.
94. Layne, "Motherhood Lost," 69-98; Esther B. Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies, New Rites of Mourning," New York Times, 25 Jan. 1998, 1, 22; Linda L. Layne, " 'I Remember the Day I Shopped for Your Layette': Consumer Goods, Fetuses, and Feminism in the Context of Pregnancy Loss," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 251-78; Lynda Zimmer, "Share the Loss," Illinois News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana), 18 Dec. 1996, B-1; "Miscarriages," 48-49.
95. Layne, "Motherhood Lost," 69-98; Esther B. Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies, New Rites of Mourning," New York Times, 25 Jan. 1998, 1, 22; Linda L. Layne, " 'I Remember the Day I Shopped for Your Layette': Consumer Goods, Fetuses, and Feminism in the Context of Pregnancy Loss," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 251-78; Lynda Zimmer, "Share the Loss," Illinois News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana), 18 Dec. 1996, B-1; "Miscarriages," 48-49.
96. Layne, "Motherhood Lost," 69-98; Esther B. Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies, New Rites of Mourning," New York Times, 25 Jan. 1998, 1, 22; Linda L. Layne, " 'I Remember the Day I Shopped for Your Layette': Consumer Goods, Fetuses, and Feminism in the Context of Pregnancy Loss," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 251-78; Lynda Zimmer, "Share the Loss," Illinois News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana), 18 Dec. 1996, B-1; "Miscarriages," 48-49.
97. Layne, "Motherhood Lost," 69-98; Esther B. Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies, New Rites of Mourning," New York Times, 25 Jan. 1998, 1, 22; Linda L. Layne, " 'I Remember the Day I Shopped for Your Layette': Consumer Goods, Fetuses, and Feminism in the Context of Pregnancy Loss," in Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions, ed. Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 251-78; Lynda Zimmer, "Share the Loss," Illinois News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana), 18 Dec. 1996, B-1; "Miscarriages," 48-49.
98. Christie Clinic Association, Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, Champaign, Illinois, 1993 pamphlet, emphasis added. On ultrasound, see Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Fetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Feminist Studies 13 (summer 1987): 263-92; Oakley, chap. 7.
99. Christie Clinic Association, Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, Champaign, Illinois, 1993 pamphlet, emphasis added. On ultrasound, see Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Fetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Feminist Studies 13 (summer 1987): 263-92; Oakley, chap. 7.
100. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), 90-105; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 349-54.
101. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), 90-105; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 349-54.
102. On the Christian tone of the movement, see Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 300-4.
103. Layne, "I Remember the Day," 256, 274, n. 17, 272. Layne, in "Motherhood Lost," also notes that, "some wings of the pregnancy loss support movement undoubtedly see support for 'unwanted' pregnancy losses as an element of anti-abortion activism" (82).
104. Quotations from St. Mary's Hospital advertisement in the Wisconsin State Journal (Madison), 3 Oct. 1999, 12A, which also appeared in the Capitol Times. I am grateful to Rima Apple for sending me the clipping.
105. Sarah Klagsbrun, letter to the editor, New York Times, 28 Nov. 1998, in response to Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies"; Margaret E. Madden, "The Variety of Emotional Reactions to Miscarriage," Women and Health 21, nos. 2/3 (1994): 85-104.
106. Sarah Klagsbrun, letter to the editor, New York Times, 28 Nov. 1998, in response to Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies"; Margaret E. Madden, "The Variety of Emotional Reactions to Miscarriage," Women and Health 21, nos. 2/3 (1994): 85-104.
107. Sarah Klagsbrun, letter to the editor, New York Times, 28 Nov. 1998, in response to Fein, "For Lost Pregnancies"; Margaret E. Madden, "The Variety of Emotional Reactions to Miscarriage," Women and Health 21, nos. 2/3 (1994): 85-104.
108. Rayna Rapp, "The Power of 'Positive' Diagnosis: Medical and Maternal Discourses on Amniocentesis," in Representations of Motherhood, ed. Donna Bassin, Margaret Honey, and Meryle Mahrer Kaplan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 206, 209; Rapp discusses three women who attended pregnancy-loss support groups, two of whom "felt they became targets of anger." See her Testing Women, Testing the Fetus: The Social Impact of Amniocentesis in America (New York: Routledge, 1999), 257. According to Reagan, chap. 4, the act of covering up abortion for self- protection invokes generations of women who called their illegal abortions "miscarriages."
109. Rayna Rapp, "The Power of 'Positive' Diagnosis: Medical and Maternal Discourses on Amniocentesis," in Representations of Motherhood, ed. Donna Bassin, Margaret Honey, and Meryle Mahrer Kaplan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 206, 209; Rapp discusses three women who attended pregnancy-loss support groups, two of whom "felt they became targets of anger." See her Testing Women, Testing the Fetus: The Social Impact of Amniocentesis in America (New York: Routledge, 1999), 257. According to Reagan, chap. 4, the act of covering up abortion for self- protection invokes generations of women who called their illegal abortions "miscarriages."
110. See also Simonds and Rothman, 176-80, 259.
111. Ellen Judith Reich, Waiting: A Diary of Loss and Hope in Pregnancy (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1992), 32; Welch and Herrmann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood"; Marily Achiron and Phoebe Wall Howard, "Twisting the Knife," People Weekly, 25 Oct. 1993, 201-2; Susan Chira, "Hers: When Hope Died," New York Times, 26 June 1994, 20; Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 304-10.
112. Ellen Judith Reich, Waiting: A Diary of Loss and Hope in Pregnancy (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1992), 32; Welch and Herrmann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood"; Marily Achiron and Phoebe Wall Howard, "Twisting the Knife," People Weekly, 25 Oct. 1993, 201-2; Susan Chira, "Hers: When Hope Died," New York Times, 26 June 1994, 20; Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 304-10.
113. Ellen Judith Reich, Waiting: A Diary of Loss and Hope in Pregnancy (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1992), 32; Welch and Herrmann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood"; Marily Achiron and Phoebe Wall Howard, "Twisting the Knife," People Weekly, 25 Oct. 1993, 201-2; Susan Chira, "Hers: When Hope Died," New York Times, 26 June 1994, 20; Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 304-10.
114. Ellen Judith Reich, Waiting: A Diary of Loss and Hope in Pregnancy (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1992), 32; Welch and Herrmann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood"; Marily Achiron and Phoebe Wall Howard, "Twisting the Knife," People Weekly, 25 Oct. 1993, 201-2; Susan Chira, "Hers: When Hope Died," New York Times, 26 June 1994, 20; Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 304-10.
115. Ellen Judith Reich, Waiting: A Diary of Loss and Hope in Pregnancy (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1992), 32; Welch and Herrmann, "Why Miscarriage Is So Misunderstood"; Marily Achiron and Phoebe Wall Howard, "Twisting the Knife," People Weekly, 25 Oct. 1993, 201-2; Susan Chira, "Hers: When Hope Died," New York Times, 26 June 1994, 20; Layne, "Breaking the Silence," 304-10.
116. The assumption that childbearing will be safe, successful, and well-timed are all privileges in the U.S. today and, no doubt, contribute to the white and middle- class makeup of the pregnancy-loss movement. Pregnancy loss and infant and adolescent mortality are all higher among low-income women and women of color; these women however, do not participate in the pregnancy-loss movement, and are understudied. I do not mean that no one could mourn a miscarriage in a different historical context, but it is important to note that public, organized mourning is historically specific.
117. Gopal K. Singh and Stella M. Yu, "Infant Mortality in the United States: Trends, Differentials, and Projections, 1950 through 2010," American Journal of Public Health 85 (July 1995): 957-64; Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice, 343-44.
118. Gopal K. Singh and Stella M. Yu, "Infant Mortality in the United States: Trends, Differentials, and Projections, 1950 through 2010," American Journal of Public Health 85 (July 1995): 957-64; Petchesky, Abortion and Woman's Choice, 343-44.
119. Bonnie G. Smith, "Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar and Archival Research in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review 100 (October 1995): 1150-76.
120. Jeremy D. Popkin,"Historians in the Autobiographical Frontier, " American Historical Review 104 (June 1999): 725-48. Popkin missed the relationship between feminism and scholarly autobiography. For two early examples by U.S. women's historians, see Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds Its Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), xiii-xxxii; and Anne Firor Scott, Making the Invisible Woman Visible (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), xi-xxvii.
121. Jeremy D. Popkin,"Historians in the Autobiographical Frontier, " American Historical Review 104 (June 1999): 725-48. Popkin missed the relationship between feminism and scholarly autobiography. For two early examples by U.S. women's historians, see Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds Its Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), xiii-xxxii; and Anne Firor Scott, Making the Invisible Woman Visible (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), xi-xxvii.
122. Jeremy D. Popkin,"Historians in the Autobiographical Frontier, " American Historical Review 104 (June 1999): 725-48. Popkin missed the relationship between feminism and scholarly autobiography. For two early examples by U.S. women's historians, see Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds Its Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), xiii-xxxii; and Anne Firor Scott, Making the Invisible Woman Visible (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), xi-xxvii.
123. Personal communication, Kathleen Brown, 27 Nov. 2001.
124. There are feminists within the movement, but it does not present itself as feminist.
125. For examples of bylines, see Salmon; Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," 69; Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," 217; Lorraine Pascasio, "A Christmas Baby," Ladies' Home Journal, December 1991, 14, 16-17. See also Gayle Letherby, "The Meanings of Miscarriage," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March- April 1993): 165-80. If I had not had my miscarriage, I would not have this child; and he is the one I want. For me, to memorialize and mourn my miscarriage annually would mean not only dedicating myself to perpetual victimhood, but to wish away my son.
126. For examples of bylines, see Salmon; Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," 69; Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," 217; Lorraine Pascasio, "A Christmas Baby," Ladies' Home Journal, December 1991, 14, 16-17. See also Gayle Letherby, "The Meanings of Miscarriage," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March- April 1993): 165-80. If I had not had my miscarriage, I would not have this child; and he is the one I want. For me, to memorialize and mourn my miscarriage annually would mean not only dedicating myself to perpetual victimhood, but to wish away my son.
127. For examples of bylines, see Salmon; Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," 69; Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," 217; Lorraine Pascasio, "A Christmas Baby," Ladies' Home Journal, December 1991, 14, 16-17. See also Gayle Letherby, "The Meanings of Miscarriage," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March- April 1993): 165-80. If I had not had my miscarriage, I would not have this child; and he is the one I want. For me, to memorialize and mourn my miscarriage annually would mean not only dedicating myself to perpetual victimhood, but to wish away my son.
128. For examples of bylines, see Salmon; Bennetts, "Preventing Miscarriage," 69; Moffitt, "Miscarriage: The Baby Who Wasn't," 217; Lorraine Pascasio, "A Christmas Baby," Ladies' Home Journal, December 1991, 14, 16-17. See also Gayle Letherby, "The Meanings of Miscarriage," Women's Studies International Forum 16 (March- April 1993): 165-80. If I had not had my miscarriage, I would not have this child; and he is the one I want. For me, to memorialize and mourn my miscarriage annually would mean not only dedicating myself to perpetual victimhood, but to wish away my son.