Changing Patterns of Legal Representation in Divorce: From Lawyers to Pro Se

Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 1 SPEC. ISS., 2003, Pages 137-155

  Mather, Lynn ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0142138110     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-6478.00250     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. A. Houseman, 'Civil Legal Assistance for Low-Income Persons: Looking Back and Looking Forward' (2002) 29 Fordham Urban Law J. 1213, at 1226.
2. J. Pearson, 'A Forum for Every Fuss: The Growth of Court Services and ADR Treatments for Family Law Cases in the United States' in Cross Currents: Family Law and Policy in the United States and England, eds. S. Katz et al. (2000) 513.
3. J. Goedt, 'Divorce Courts: Case Management, Case Characteristics, and the Pace of Litigation' in (1992) 16 Urban Jurisdictions 4.
4. R. Cramton, 'Symposium on Mandatory Pro bono' (1991) 19 Hofstra Law Rev., 1113.
5. Houseman, op. cit., n. 1; A. Houseman, 'Civil Legal Assistance for the Twenty-First Century: Achieving Equal Justice for All' (1998) 17 Yale Law and Policy Rev. 369.
6. Houseman, op. cit., n. 1; A. Houseman, 'Civil Legal Assistance for the Twenty-First Century: Achieving Equal Justice for All' (1998) 17 Yale Law and Policy Rev. 369.
7. Thus, the definition of a divorce 'case' in the United States is different from a 'case' in the United Kingdom. A divorce in the United Kingdom involves two separate proceedings: 'primary relief' for the dissolution of marriage and 'ancillary relief' for resolution of property and child-related issues.
8. L. Mather et al., Divorce Lawyers at Work: Varieties of Professionalism in Practice (2001) 135.
9. In Phillips v. Washington Legal Foundation, 524 U.S. 156 [1998], the Supreme Court held that IOLTA interest is the property of the clients, not their lawyers, but the justices divided over the issue of whether use of those funds for legal services for the poor constituted a 'taking' in violation of the Constitution. Over half the states (including Texas, the site of the Phillips litigation) have mandatory IOLTA programmes for which all lawyers are required to participate. M. Heller and J. Krier, 'Making Something Out of Nothing: The Law of Takings and Phillips v. Washington Legal Foundation' (1999) 7 Supreme Court Economic Rev. 285, at 287. Lower court rulings since the Philips decision have not yet resolved this issue so that uncertainty remains over the future of IOLTA funding for legal services.
10. Mallard v. U.S. District Court, 490 U.S. 296 [1989].
11. Cramton, op. cit., n. 4; D. Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (1988).
12. Cramton, op. cit., n. 4; D. Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (1988).
13. T. Grillo, 'The Mediation Alternative: Process Dangers For Women' (1991) 100 Yale Law J. 1545; P. Bryan, 'Killing Us Softly: Divorce Mediation and the Politics of Power' (1992) 40 Buffalo Law Rev. 441.
14. T. Grillo, 'The Mediation Alternative: Process Dangers For Women' (1991) 100 Yale Law J. 1545; P. Bryan, 'Killing Us Softly: Divorce Mediation and the Politics of Power' (1992) 40 Buffalo Law Rev. 441.
15. C. McEwen et al., 'Bring in the Lawyers: Challenging the Dominant Approaches to Ensuring Fairness in Divorce Mediation' (1995) 79 Minnesota Law Rev. 1317.
16. C. McEwen et al., 'Lawyers, Mediation, and the Management of Divorce Practice' (1994) 28 Law and Society Rev. 149. For a similar finding about lawyers and comprehensive mediation in the United Kingdom, see J. Walker et al. (eds.), Mediation, the Making and Remaking of Cooperative Relationships: an evaluation of the effectiveness of comprehensive mediation (1994).
17. C. McEwen et al., 'Lawyers, Mediation, and the Management of Divorce Practice' (1994) 28 Law and Society Rev. 149. For a similar finding about lawyers and comprehensive mediation in the United Kingdom, see J. Walker et al. (eds.), Mediation, the Making and Remaking of Cooperative Relationships: an evaluation of the effectiveness of comprehensive mediation (1994).
18. Mediated divorces in Maine were twice as likely as non-mediated ones to have two lawyers. McEwen et al., id. In Arizona, divorce litigants with attorneys were more likely than pro se litigants to have used mediation: B. Sales, 'Is Self-Representation a Reasonable Alternative to Attorney Representation in Divorce Cases' (1993) 37 St. Louis Law J. 553.
19. J. Pearson, 'Ten Myths About Family Law' (1993) 27 Family Law Q. 279, at 281.
20. P. Hannaford-Agor and N. Mott, 'Research on Self-represented Litigation: Preliminary Results and Methodological Considerations' (2003) 24 Justice System J. (forthcoming).
21. Ibid. id.
22. Ibid. id.
23. id., p. 16.
24. Goedt, op. cit., n. 3.
25. Sales, op. cit., n. 14.
26. Unpublished data. For description of research methods and sites, see Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7.
27. New research from New Hampshire found that at least one party appeared pro se in 69 per cent of the domestic relations cases in 2002: D. Wise, 'Task Force Hopes to Ease Access to Courts for Pro Se Litigants' New Hampshire Bar News, 6 September 2002, 11. Data from another jurisdiction showed that the number of pro se plaintiffs doubled between 1991 and 1994: R. Daniszewski, 'Coping with the Pro Se Litigant' New Hampshire Bar J., March 1995, 46. In a nationwide study by the American Judicature Society, a survey of court managers found that 84 per cent believed that pro se litigation had increased greatly (45 per cent) or moderately (39 per cent), while 13 per cent believed it had stayed the same and only 2 per cent thought it had decreased during the previous five years: J. Goldschmidt, 'How are courts handling pro se litigants? ' (1998) 82 Judicature 13.
28. New research from New Hampshire found that at least one party appeared pro se in 69 per cent of the domestic relations cases in 2002: D. Wise, 'Task Force Hopes to Ease Access to Courts for Pro Se Litigants' New Hampshire Bar News, 6 September 2002, 11. Data from another jurisdiction showed that the number of pro se plaintiffs doubled between 1991 and 1994: R. Daniszewski, 'Coping with the Pro Se Litigant' New Hampshire Bar J., March 1995, 46. In a nationwide study by the American Judicature Society, a survey of court managers found that 84 per cent believed that pro se litigation had increased greatly (45 per cent) or moderately (39 per cent), while 13 per cent believed it had stayed the same and only 2 per cent thought it had decreased during the previous five years: J. Goldschmidt, 'How are courts handling pro se litigants? ' (1998) 82 Judicature 13.
29. New research from New Hampshire found that at least one party appeared pro se in 69 per cent of the domestic relations cases in 2002: D. Wise, 'Task Force Hopes to Ease Access to Courts for Pro Se Litigants' New Hampshire Bar News, 6 September 2002, 11. Data from another jurisdiction showed that the number of pro se plaintiffs doubled between 1991 and 1994: R. Daniszewski, 'Coping with the Pro Se Litigant' New Hampshire Bar J., March 1995, 46. In a nationwide study by the American Judicature Society, a survey of court managers found that 84 per cent believed that pro se litigation had increased greatly (45 per cent) or moderately (39 per cent), while 13 per cent believed it had stayed the same and only 2 per cent thought it had decreased during the previous five years: J. Goldschmidt, 'How are courts handling pro se litigants? ' (1998) 82 Judicature 13.
30. Conference of State Court Administrators (CoSCA), 'Position Paper on Self-Represented Litigation' (2000).
31. B. Henschen, Lessons from the Country: Serving Self-Represented Litigants in Rural Jurisdictions (2002).
32. Daniszewski, op. cit., n. 23, pp. 46-7; Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, p. 20.
33. Daniszewski, op. cit., n. 23, pp. 46-7; Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, p. 20.
34. For discussion of the institutional approach to understanding court usage, see M. Galanter, The Radiating Effects of Courts' in Empirical Theories About Courts, eds. K. Boyum and L. Mather (1983) and C. Harrington and D. Ward, 'Patterns of Appellate Litigation, 1945-1990' in Contemplating Courts, ed. L. Epstein (1995).
35. For discussion of the institutional approach to understanding court usage, see M. Galanter, The Radiating Effects of Courts' in Empirical Theories About Courts, eds. K. Boyum and L. Mather (1983) and C. Harrington and D. Ward, 'Patterns of Appellate Litigation, 1945-1990' in Contemplating Courts, ed. L. Epstein (1995).
36. Goedt, op. cit., n. 3.
37. 'Provision of assistance affects demand' - Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 33.
38. Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, p. 20.
39. CoSCA, op. cit., n. 24, pp. 1-2.
40. For summary of different forms of court assistance for pro se, see Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, pp. 20-2.
41. Cited in R. Esquivai, 'The Ability of the Indigent to Access the Legal Process in Family Law Matters' (2000) 1 Loyola J. of Public Interest Law 79, at 102.
42. 〈www.lawca.com/JC.htm〉.
43. 〈www.co.dane.wi.us/clrkcort/prosechklst.htm〉.
44. 〈www.illinoislawhelp.org/Education/FamilyJuvenile/ DivorceDefaultComplaint.pdf〉
45. Esquivai, op. cit., n. 33, p. 102.
46. N. Gilfrich et al, 'Law Students Assist Pro Se Litigants in Maryland' (1997) 81(2) Judicature 82.
47. 〈www.firstdistrictcourt.com/prose.htm〉.
48. E. McCulloch, 'Let Me Show You How: Pro Se Divorce Courses and Client Power' (1996) 48 Florida Law Rev. 481; M. Barry, 'Accessing Justice: Are Pro Se Clinics A Reasonable Response to the Lack of Pro Bono Legal Services and Should Law School Clinics Conduct Them?' (1999) 67 Fordham Law Rev. 1879.
49. E. McCulloch, 'Let Me Show You How: Pro Se Divorce Courses and Client Power' (1996) 48 Florida Law Rev. 481; M. Barry, 'Accessing Justice: Are Pro Se Clinics A Reasonable Response to the Lack of Pro Bono Legal Services and Should Law School Clinics Conduct Them?' (1999) 67 Fordham Law Rev. 1879.
50. Barry, id.
51. Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16.
52. CoSCA, op. cit., n. 24. In the American Judicature Survey of court administrators, the two barriers cited most often against pro se assistance programme development were 1) funding and 2) the Bar: Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, p. 22.
53. CoSCA, op. cit., n. 24. In the American Judicature Survey of court administrators, the two barriers cited most often against pro se assistance programme development were 1) funding and 2) the Bar: Goldschmidt, op. cit., n. 23, p. 22.
54. Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 37.
55. J. Short, quoted in E. Amon, 'Sue it Yourself: Pro se Litigants Are Growing in Number and Getting Help' National Law J., 8 July 2002.
56. These next findings are all from Sales, op. cit., n. 14.
57. In a study of sixteen urban courts, 52 per cent of divorce cases overall involved children, with a range of 42 per cent to 60 per cent: Goedt, op. cit., n. 3, p. 45.
58. Sales, op. cit., n. 14.
59. Ibid. id.
60. Ibid. id.
61. Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 30; and see Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16.
62. Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 30; and see Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16.
63. L. Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution (1999). L. Schafran, 'Documenting Gender Bias in the Courts: The Task Force Approach' (1987) 70 Judicature 280.
64. L. Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution (1999). L. Schafran, 'Documenting Gender Bias in the Courts: The Task Force Approach' (1987) 70 Judicature 280.
65. Quoted in R. Engler, 'Out of Sight and Out of Line: The Need for Regulation of Lawyers' Negotiations with Unrepresented Poor Persons' (1997) 85 California Law Rev. 79, at 126.
66. In terms of marital dissolution, studies show that 'women initiate most divorces today': I. Ellman, 'Divorce in the United States' in Katz, op. cit., n. 2, p. 347. Court data consistently shows wives disproportionately to be plaintiffs in divorce actions. See for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7.
67. In terms of marital dissolution, studies show that 'women initiate most divorces today': I. Ellman, 'Divorce in the United States' in Katz, op. cit., n. 2, p. 347. Court data consistently shows wives disproportionately to be plaintiffs in divorce actions. See for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7.
68. Henschen, n. 25, p. 30.
69. Sales, op. cit., n. 14, p. 567. Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16, p. 11. Gilfrich et al., op. cit., n. 38.
70. Sales, op. cit., n. 14, p. 567. Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16, p. 11. Gilfrich et al., op. cit., n. 38.
71. Sales, op. cit., n. 14, p. 567. Hannaford-Agor and Mott, op. cit., n. 16, p. 11. Gilfrich et al., op. cit., n. 38.
72. Sales, id.
73. Compare Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 33 with Sales, id., pp 594-5.
74. Compare Henschen, op. cit., n. 25, p. 33 with Sales, id., pp 594-5.
75. See, for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7; A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, Divorce Lawyers and their Clients (1995); R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (1992); J. Eekelaar et al., Family Lawyers: The Divorce Work of Solicitors (2000); R. Hunter, 'Adversarial Mythologies: Policy Assumptions and Research Evidence in Family Law', in this volume, p. 156.
76. See, for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7; A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, Divorce Lawyers and their Clients (1995); R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (1992); J. Eekelaar et al., Family Lawyers: The Divorce Work of Solicitors (2000); R. Hunter, 'Adversarial Mythologies: Policy Assumptions and Research Evidence in Family Law', in this volume, p. 156.
77. See, for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7; A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, Divorce Lawyers and their Clients (1995); R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (1992); J. Eekelaar et al., Family Lawyers: The Divorce Work of Solicitors (2000); R. Hunter, 'Adversarial Mythologies: Policy Assumptions and Research Evidence in Family Law', in this volume, p. 156.
78. See, for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7; A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, Divorce Lawyers and their Clients (1995); R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (1992); J. Eekelaar et al., Family Lawyers: The Divorce Work of Solicitors (2000); R. Hunter, 'Adversarial Mythologies: Policy Assumptions and Research Evidence in Family Law', in this volume, p. 156.
79. See, for example, Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7; A. Sarat and W. Felstiner, Divorce Lawyers and their Clients (1995); R. Ingleby, Solicitors and Divorce (1992); J. Eekelaar et al., Family Lawyers: The Divorce Work of Solicitors (2000); R. Hunter, 'Adversarial Mythologies: Policy Assumptions and Research Evidence in Family Law', in this volume, p. 156.
80. The remainder of this section draws from Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7.
81. Unpublished data from 1984 and 1988 (n = 1292). See Mather et al., op. cit., n. 7 for description of research sites and methods.
82. Ibid. id.
83. Data from Maine for 1984 and 1988 showed one or more adversarial motions filed in 76.4 per cent of the two-lawyer divorces compared with 17 per cent of the one-lawyer cases and 3.7 per cent of the no-lawyer cases. Case length was 274 days for two-lawyer cases, 179 days for one-lawyer, and 108 for no-lawyer cases (n = 2958).
84. Eekelaar et al. reach a similar conclusion in their study of family lawyers in the United Kingdom. The researchers found a 'dual profession' with solicitors who represent low-income clients (mostly under legal aid) handling cases quickly and expeditiously, whilst solicitors who represent private clients are more willing to let clients set the agenda and to invest more time in the proceedings: Eekelaar et al., op. cit., n. 59.
85. Borrowing from Frank Sander's well-known argument for a 'multi-door courthouse,' which offers different kinds of dispute resolution services, Pearson similarly advocates creating a 'forum for every fuss' to provide alternative mechanisms and different types of representation appropriate to resolve the particular needs of different divorce cases: Pearson, op. cit., n. 2.
86. J. Giddings and M. Robertson, 'Large-Scale Map or the A-Z? The Place of Self-help Services in Legal Aid' in this volume, p. 102.
87. McCulloch, op. cit., n. 40, p. 497.