The case against direct incentives and the search for alternative approaches to better land management in Central America

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

Volumn 99, Issue 1-3, 2003, Pages 61-81

  Hellin, J ^a,c   Schrader, K ^b  

^a OXFORD BROOKES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

^c Kingston Farm ^*  (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Better land husbandry; Central America; Farmer adoption; Incentives; Soil and water conservation

Indexed keywords

INCENTIVE; LAND MANAGEMENT; SLOPE FARMING; SMALLHOLDER; SOIL CONSERVATION; SOIL EROSION;

CENTRAL AMERICA;

VETIVERIA ZIZANIOIDES; ZEA MAYS;

EID: 0142091334     PISSN: 01678809     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0167-8809(03)00149-X     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Alegre, J.C., Rao, M.R., 1996. Soil and water conservation by contour hedging in the humid tropics of Peru. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 57, 17-25.
2. Almekinders, C.J.M., 2002. Incentive measures for sustainable land use and conservation of agrobiodiversity. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on Experiences and Lessons from Southern Africa, Lusaka, Zambia, 11-14 September 2001. Southern African Development Community Plant Genetic Resources Centre (SPGRC).
3. Altieri, M.A., 2002. Agroecology: the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal environments. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 93, 1-24.
4. Andersen, S., Gündel, S., Pound, B., Triomphe, B., 2001. Cover Crops in Smallholder Agriculture: Lessons from Latin America. Intermediate Technology Development Group Publishing, London.
5. Ashby, J.A., 1985. The social ecology of soil erosion in a Colombian farming system. Rural Sociol. 50 (3), 377-396.
6. Bharad, G.M., 1995. Vetiver hedges on contour for in-situ rain water management on arable, non-arable and wet lands. Newslett. Vetiver Network 13, 32-34.
7. Blaikie, P., 1989. Explanation and policy in land degradation and rehabilitation for developing countries. Land Degrad. Rehabil. 1, 23-37.
8. Blaikie, P., 1993. What glasses are we wearing? Different views of environmental management. In: Christiansson, C., Dahlberg, A., Loiske, V-M., Östberg, W. (Eds.), A Discussion on Natural Resources Research in the Third World. School of Geography, Stockholm University, pp. 32-35.
9. Blaikie, P., Brookfield, H., 1987. Land Degradation and Society. Methuen, London.
10. Buckles, D., Triomphe, B., Sain, G., 1998. Cover Crops in Hillside Agriculture: Farmer Innovation with Mucuna. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.
11. Bunch, R., 1982. Two Ears of Corn. A Guide to People-Centered Agricultural Improvement. World Neighbors, Oklahoma City.
12. Bunch, R., López, G., 1995. Soil Recuperation in Central America: Sustaining Innovation after Intervention, vol. 55. Gatekeeper Series, International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
13. Center for Development and Environment (CDE), 1995. Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. A Conceptual Approach to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in the Context of Development. Development and Environment Reports No. 14, Center for Development and Environment, Berne.
14. Center for Development and Environment (CDE), 1998. Auto-Didactic Learning for Sustainability (ALS). A Concept for Auto-Didactic Training in Sustainable Use of Natural Resources for Development Personnel. Center for Development and Environment, Berne.
15. Chambers, R., 1993. Challenging the Professions. Frontiers for Rural Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
16. Cheatle, R.J., 1993. Next steps towards better land husbandry. In: Hudson, N.W., Cheatle, R. (Eds.), Working with Farmers for Better Land Husbandry. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp. 223-230.
17. Clark, R., 1996. Methodologies for the Economic Analysis of Soil Erosion and Conservation. Working Paper GEC 96-13, Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment. University of East Anglia, Norwich.
18. Comia, R.A., Paningbatan, E.P., Håkansson, I., 1994. Erosion and crop yield response to soil conditions under alley cropping systems in the Philippines. Soil Tillage Res. 31, 249-261.
19. Critchley, W.R.S., Reij, C., Willcocks, T.J., 1994. Indigenous soil and water conservation: a review of the state of knowledge and prospects for building on traditions. Land Degrad. Rehabil. 5, 293-314.
20. de Freitas, V.H., 2000. Soil Management and Conservation for Small Farms: Strategies and Methods of Introduction, Technologies and Equipment, vol. 77. FAO Soils Bulletin, Rome.
21. de Janvry, A., Sadoulet, E., Young, L.W., 1989. Land and labour in Latin American agriculture from the 1950s to the 1980s. J. Peasant Stud. 16 (3), 396-424.
22. Doolette, J.B., Smyle, J.W., 1990. Soil and moisture conservation technologies: review of literature. In: Doolette, J.B., Magrath, W.B. (Eds.), Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies. World Bank Technical Paper 127, pp. 35-69.
23. Doran, J.W., 2002. Soil health and global sustainability: translating science into practice. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 88 (2), 119-127.
24. Doran, J.W., Sarrantonio, M., Liebig, M.A., 1996. Soil health and sustainability. Adv. Agron. 52, 1-54.
25. Douglas, M.G., 1988. Integrating conservation into farming systems: the Malawi experience. In: Moldenhauer, W.C., Hudson, N.W. (Eds.), Conservation Farming on Steeplands. Soil and Water Conservation Society and World Association of Soil and Water Conservation, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 215-227.
26. Douglas, M.G., 1993. Making conservation farmer-friendly. In: Hudson, N.W., Cheatle, R. (Eds.), Working with Farmers for Better Land Husbandry. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp. 4-15.
27. Douglas, M.G., 1999. Productive and conservation-effective better land husbandry practices. Newslett. Assoc. Better Land Husbandry 10, 44-50.
28. Dvorak, K.A., 1991. Methods of on-farm, diagnostic research on adoption potential of alley cropping. Agrofor. Syst. 15, 167-181.
29. Edwards, M., 1989. The irrelevance of development studies. Third World Q. 11 (1), 116-135.
30. Enters, T., 1998. Methods for the Economic Assessment of the On- and Off-Site Impacts of Soil Erosion, Issues in Sustainable Land Management, vol. 2. International Board for Soil Research and Management, Bangkok.
31. Enters, T., 1999. Incentives as policy instruments - key concept and definitions. In: Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, pp. 25-40.
32. Enters, T., Hagmann, J., 1996. One-way, two-way, which way? Extension workers: from messengers to facilitators. Unasylva 46 (184), 1-9.
33. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 1995. Agricultural Investment to Promote Improved Capture and Use of Rainfall in Dryland Farming. FAO Investment Centre Technical Paper No. 10, Rome.
34. Foster, G.R., Moldenhauer, W.C., Wischmeier, W.H., 1982. Transferability of U.S. technology for prediction and control of erosion in the tropics. In: Kussow, W., El-Swaify, S.A., Mannering, J. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and Conservation in the Tropics, vol. 43. American Society of Agronomy Special Publication, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 135-149.
35. Fujisaka, S., 1989. The need to build upon farmer practice and knowledge: reminders from selected upland conservation projects and policies. Agrofor. Syst. 9, 141-153.
36. Fujisaka, S., 1991. Improving productivity of an upland rice and maize system: farmer cropping choices or researcher cropping pattern trapeziods. Exp. Agric. 27, 253-261.
37. Gardner, K., Lewis, D., 1996. Anthropology, Development and the Post-Modern Challenge. Pluto Press, London.
38. Gardner, R., Mawdesley, K., 1997. Soil erosion in the Middle Mountains of Nepal. Agrofor. Forum 8 (4), 25-29.
39. Garrity, D.P., 1996. Tree-soil-crop interactions on slopes. In: Ong, C.K., Huxley, P. (Eds.), Tree-Crop Interactions: A Physiological Approach. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Kenya, pp. 299-318.
40. Garrity, D.P., Stark, M., Mercado, A., 1997. Rapid soil distribution within alleys: why simple extension models for contour hedgerows may not be appropriate. Agrofor. Forum 8 (4), 5-7.
41. Giger, M., 1999. Avoiding the Shortcut: Moving Beyond the Use of Direct Incentives. A Review of Experiences with the Use of Incentives in Projects for Sustainable Soil Management. Development and Environment Reports 17, Centre for Development and Environment, Berne.
42. Giger, M., Liniger, H., Critchley, W., 1999. Use of direct incentives and profitability of soil and water conservation in eastern and southern Africa. In: Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, pp. 247-274.
43. Govers, G., Vandaele, K., Desmet, P., Poesen, J., Bunte, K., 1994. The role of tillage in soil redistribution on hillslopes. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 45, 469-478.
44. Greenfield, J.C., 1989. Vetiver Grass (Vetiveria spp.) the Ideal Plant for Vegetative Soil and Moisture Conservation. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
45. Grimshaw, R.G., 1995. Vetiver grass - its use for slope and structure stabilisation under tropical and semi tropical conditions. In: Barker, D.H. (Ed.), Vegetation and Slopes: Stabilisation, Protection and Ecology. Institute of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford, London, pp. 26-35.
46. Hein, W., 1998. Unterentwicklung. Krise der Peripherie. Phänomene-Theorien-Strategien. Grundwissen Politik, Band 20. Leske + Budrich, Opladen.
47. Heissenhuber, A., Kantelhardt, J., Pahl, H., 1998. Economic Considerations Concerning the Possibilities of Environmental Protection in Agriculture. Medit 3/98, Edagricole, Bologna, pp. 4-10.
48. Hellin, J., 1999. Soil and Water Conservation in Honduras: A Land Husbandry Approach. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.
49. Hellin, J., Haigh, M.J., 1999. Rainfall in Honduras during Hurricane Mitch. Weather 50 (11), 350-359.
50. Hellin, J., Haigh, M.J., 2002a. Better land husbandry in Honduras: towards the new paradigm in conserving soil, water and productivity. Land Degrad. Dev. 13, 1-18.
51. Hellin, J., Haigh, M.J., 2002b. Impact of Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver grass) live barriers on maize production in Honduras. In: Wang, L., Wu, D., Tu, X., Nie, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 12th International Soil Conservation Organisation Conference on Sustainable Utilization of Global Soil and Water Resources, 26-31 May 2002, vol. 3. Beijing, China, pp. 277-281.
52. Herweg, K., 1993. Problems of acceptance and adaptation of soil conservation in Ethiopia. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), Acceptance of Soil and Water Conservation. Strategies and Technologies. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 3. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), Witzenhausen, pp. 391-411.
53. Herweg, K., 1996. Field Manual for Assessment of Current Erosion Damage. Soil Conservation Research Programme and Centre for Development and Environment, Berne.
54. Herweg, K., Ludi, E., 1999. The performance of selected soil and water conservation measures - case studies from Ethiopia and Eritrea. Catena 36, 99-114.
55. Hillel, D., 1991. Out of the Earth: Civilization and the Life of the Soil. University of California Press, Berkeley.
56. Hinchclifffe, F., Guijt, I., Pretty, J.N., Shah, P., 1995. New Horizons: The Economic, Social and Environmental Impacts of Participatory Watershed Development, vol. 50. Gatekeeper Series, International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
57. Howeler, R.H., 1994. Integrated soil and crop management to prevent environmental degradation in cassava-based cropping systems. In: Bottema, J.W.T., Stolz, D.R. (Eds.), Proceedings of Workshops on Upland Agriculture in Asia, Bogor, Indonesia, 6-8 April 1993, pp. 195-224.
58. Hudson, N.W., 1988. Tilting at windmills or fighting real battles. In: Moldenhauer, W.C., Hudson, N.W. (Eds.), Conservation Farming on Steeplands. Soil and Water Conservation Society and World Association of Soil and Water Conservation, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 3-8.
59. Hudson, N.W., 1992. Land Husbandry. BT Batsford Limited, London.
60. Hudson, N.W., 1993a. Field Measurement of Soil Erosion and Runoff, vol. 64. FAO Soils Bulletin, Rome.
61. Hudson, N.W., 1993b. Soil and water management for the nineties - new pressures, new objectives. In: Hudson, N.W., Cheatle, R. (Eds.), Working with Farmers for Better Land Husbandry. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp. 15-20.
62. Hudson, N.W., 1995. Soil Conservation. BT Batsford Limited, London.
63. Hurni, H., Ludi, E., 2000. Reconciling Conservation with Sustainable Development. A Participatory Study Inside and Around the Simen Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Center for Development and Environment, Berne.
64. Hurni, H., International Group of Contributors, 1996. Precious Earth: From Soil and Water Conservation to Sustainable Land Management. Centre of Development and Environment (CDE), International Soil Conservation Organisation (ISCO), Berne.
65. Huszar, P.C., 1999. Justification for using soil conservation incentives. In: Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, pp. 57-68.
66. Institute Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agriculture (IICA) and La Dirección de Planeamiento, Programación, Proyectos y Auditoría Técnica (DIPRAT), 1995. Honduras-Diagnóstico del sector agropecuario. IICA, San José, Costa Rica.
67. International Fund of Agricultural Development (IFAD), 1996. Combating Desertification - The Role of Incentives. A Desk-Review of Literature and Practical Experiences with Incentives in Natural Resources Management in Sub-Saharan Africa; with Emphasis on the Gender, Institutional and Policies Dimensions. IFAD & Centre for Development Co-operation Services (CDCS), Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
68. Kellman, M., Tackaberry, R., 1997. Tropical Environments: The Functioning and Management of Tropical Ecosystems. Routledge, London.
69. Kerr, J.M., Sanghi, N.K., Sriramappa, G., 1996. Subsidies in Watershed Development Projects in India: Distortions and Opportunities, vol. 61. Gatekeeper Series, International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
70. Kiepe, P., 1995. Effect of Cassia siamea hedgerow barriers on soil physical properties. Geoderma 66, 113-120.
71. Kiepe, P., 1996. Cover and barrier effect of Cassia siamea hedgerows on soil conservation in semi-arid Kenya. Soil Technol. 9, 161-171.
72. Kloosterboer, E.H., Eppink, L.A.A.J., 1989. Soil and water conservation in very steep areas - a case study of Santo Antão Island, Cape Verde. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), The Extent of Soil Erosion - Regional Comparisons. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 1. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Witzenhausen, pp. 111-142.
73. Laing, D., 1992. Correspondence. Newslett. Vetiver Network 8, 13-14.
74. Lal, R., 1988. Soil erosion research on steeplands. In: Moldenhauer, W.C., Hudson, N.W. (Eds.), Conservation Farming on Steeplands. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 45-53.
75. Lal, R., 1989. Agroforestry systems and soil surface management of a tropical alfisol. Agrofor. Syst. 8, 1-6.
76. Lal, R., 1994. Soil erosion by wind and water: problems and prospects. In: Lal, R. (Ed.), Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowam, pp. 1-9.
77. Laman, M., Sanders, H., Zaal, F., Sidikou, H.A., Toe, E., 1996. Combatting Desertification - The Role of Incentives. Centre for Development Cooperation Services, Vrije Universitiet, Amsterdam.
78. Leonard, H.J., 1987. Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central America: A Regional Environmental Profile. International Institute for Environment and Development, Washington, DC.
79. Lewis, L.A., Nyamulinda, V., 1996. The critical role of human activities in land degradation in Rwanda. Land Degrad. Dev. 7, 47-55.
80. Lutz, E., Pagiola, S., Reiche, C., 1994. Economic and Institutional Analyses of Soil Conservation Projects in Central America and the Caribbean. World Bank Environment Paper No. 8, Washington, DC.
81. McDonald, M., Healey, J.R., Stevens, P.A., 2002. The effects of secondary forest clearance and subsequent land-use on erosion losses and soil properties in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 92, 1-19.
82. Napier, T.L., Sommers, D.G., 1993. Soil conservation in the tropics: a prerequisite for societal development. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), Acceptance of Soil and Water Conservation. Strategies and Technologies. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 3. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL), Witzenhausen, pp. 7-28.
83. National Research Council, 1993. Vetiver Grass: A Thin Green Line Against Erosion. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
84. Nehmdahl, H., 1999. Vetiver grass in a soil and water conservation trial - Tanzania. Newslett. Vetiver Network 20, 47-49.
85. Norman, D., Douglas, M., 1994. Farming Systems Development and Soil Conservation. FAO Farm Systems Management Series, Rome.
86. Omoro, L.M.A., Nair, P.K.R., 1993. Effects of mulching with multipurpose-tree prunings on soil and water run-off under semi-arid conditions in Kenya. Agrofor. Syst. 22, 225-239.
87. Programa para una agricultura sostenible en las laderas de América Central (PASOLAC)/Intercooperation, 1998. Marco orientador para un manejo adecuado de incentives en Ia promoción de una agricultura sostenible. Project Report, Managua, Tegucigalpa, San Salvador.
88. Pawar, P.B., 1998. Prospect and Problems in Use of Vetiver for Watershed Management in Sub Mountain and Scarcity Zones (Maharashtra, India). Newslett. Vetiver Network 19, 33-35.
89. Perich, I., 1993. Umweltökonomie in der entwicklungspolitischen Diskussion. Ansätze und Perspektiven. Berichte zur Entwicklung und Umwelt Nr. 8, Gruppe für Entwicklung und Umwelt, University of Berne.
90. Pretty, J.N., 1995. Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Self-Reliance. Earthscan Publications, London.
91. Pretty, J.N., 1998. The Living Land: Agriculture, Food and Community Regeneration in Rural Europe. Earthscan Publications, London.
92. Pretty, J.N., Chambers, R., 1994. Towards a learning paradigm: new professionalism and institutions for agriculture. In: Scoones, I., Thompson, J. (Eds.), Beyond Farmer First: Rural People's Knowledge, Agricultural Research and Extension Practice. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp. 182-202.
93. Pretty, J.N., Hine, R., 2001. Reducing Food Poverty with Sustainable Agriculture: A Summary of New Evidence. University of Essex, Colchester.
94. Pretty, J.N., Shah, P., 1997. Making soil and water conservation sustainable: from coercion and control to partnerships and participation. Land Degrad. Dev. 8, 39-58.
95. Pretty, J.N., Shaxson, T.F., 1998. The potential of sustainable agriculture. Newslett. Assoc. Better Land Husbandry 8, 4-21.
96. Quine, T.A., Walling, D.E., Chakela, Q.K., Mandiringana, O.T., Zhang, X., 1999. Rates and patterns of tillage and water erosion on terraces and contour strips: evidence from caesium-137 measurements. Catena 36, 115-142.
97. Rao, C.N., Rao, M.S., 1996. Effect of vetiver hedge on runoff, soil loss, soil moisture and yield of rainfed crops in Alfisol watersheds of southern India. Newslett. Vetiver Network 15, 21-22.
98. Rhoades, R.E., 1991. The Art of the Informal Agricultural Survey, vol. 36. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Research Guide, Ibadan, Nigeria.
99. Rivas, D.A., 1993. Factors Affecting Soil Erosion in Maize (Zea mays L.) and Pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) Stands in Ticuantepe, Nicaragua: A Preliminary Evaluation of the Universal Soil Loss Equation Using Data from Erosion Plots. M.Sc. Dissertation, Reports and Dissertations No. 15, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
100. Robinson, D.A., 1989. Motives and policies for soil conservation in colonial and early, post-independence Zambia. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), The Extent of Soil Erosion - Regional Comparisons. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 1. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Witzenhausen, pp. 87-109.
101. Roels, J.M., 1985. Estimation of soil loss at a regional scale based on plot measurements - some critical considerations. Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 10, 587-595.
102. Ruppenthal, M., Leihner, D.E., Hilger, T.H., Castillo, F.J.A., 1996. Rainfall erosivity and credibility of Inceptisols in the southwest Colombian Andes. Exp. Agric. 32, 91-101.
103. Rüttiman, M., Schaub, D., Prasuhn, V., Rüegg, W., 1995. Measurement of runoff and soil erosion on regularly cultivated fields in Switzerland - some critical considerations. Catena 25, 127-139.
104. Sanders, D.W., 1988. Food and Agriculture Organization activities in soil conservation. In: Moldenhauer, W.C., Hudson, N.W. (Eds.), Conservation Farming on Steeplands. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 54-62.
105. Sanders, D., Cahill, D., 1999. Where incentives fir in soil conservation programs. In: Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, pp. 11-24.
106. Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), 1999. Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi.
107. Schiller, J.M., Anecksamphant, C., Sujanin, S., 1982. Development of areas of shifting cultivation in north Thailand: "Thai-Australia land development project". In: Kussow, W., El-Swaify, S.A., Mannering, J. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and Conservation in the Tropics. American Society of Agronomy Special Publication No. 43, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 77-96.
108. Schrader, K., 2002. Anreize zur nachhaltigen Bodennutzung in Zentralamerika. Eine Analyse direkter materieller Anreize in Projekten der ländlichen Regionalentwicklung in Bergregionen El Salvadors, Honduras' und Nicaraguas. Geographica Bernensia G 69, Institute of Geography, University of Berne.
109. Schrader, K., Ulloa, S., García Valenzuela, A., 1999. Producción y conservación: Adopción de un paquete tecnológico en Condega, Estelí, Nicaragua. In: Sain, G. (Ed.), La adopción de tecnologías. La perspectiva del agricultor y sus implicaciones para la elaboración de políticas. Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), San José, Costa Rica, pp. 231-237.
110. Shaxson, T.F., 1988. Conserving soil by stealth. In: Moldenhauer, W.C., Hudson, N.W. (Eds.), Conservation Farming on Steeplands. Soil and Water Conservation Society and World Association of Soil and Water Conservation, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 9-17.
111. Shaxson, T.F., 1992. Crossing some watersheds in conservation thinking. In: Tato, K., Hurni, H. (Eds.), Soil Conservation for Survival. Soil and Water Conservation Society in Co-operation with the International Soil Conservation Organisation and the World Association of Soil and Water Conservation, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 81-89.
112. Shaxson, T.F., 1993. Conservation-effectiveness of farmers' actions: a criterion of good land husbandry. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), Acceptance of Soil and Water Conservation: Strategies and Technologies. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 3. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Witzenhausen, pp. 103-128.
113. Shaxson, T.F., 1997. Soil erosion and land husbandry. Land Husbandry 2 (1), 1-14.
114. Shaxson, T.F., Hudson, N.W., Sanders, D.W., Roose, E., Moldenhauer, W.C., 1989. Land Husbandry: A Framework for Soil and Water Conservation. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa.
115. Shaxson, T.F., Tiffen, M., Wood, A., Turton, C., 1997. Better Land Husbandry: Re-thinking Approaches to Land Improvement and the Conservation of Water and Soil, Natural Resource Perspectives, vol. 19. Overseas Development Institute, London.
116. Sheng, T.C., 1982. Erosion problems associated with cultivation in humid tropical hilly regions. In: Kussow, W., El-Swaify, S.A., Mannering, J. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and Conservation in the Tropics. American Society of Agronomy Special Publication No. 43, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 27-39.
117. Sillitoe, P., 1993. Losing ground? Soil loss and erosion in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Land Degrad. Rehabil. 4, 143-166.
118. Steiner, K., 1996. Causes of soil degradation and development approaches to sustainable soil management. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Margraf Verlag, Eschborn.
119. Stocking, M., 1994. Assessing vegetative cover and management effects. In: Lal, R. (Ed.), Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, pp. 211-232.
120. Stocking, M., 1995. Soil erosion and land degradation. In: O'Riordan, T. (Ed.), Environmental Science for Environmental Management. Longman, Harlow, pp. 223-242.
121. Stocking, M., Tengberg, A., 1999. Soil conservation as an incentive enough - experiences from southern Brazil and Argentina on identifying sustainable practices. In: Sanders, D.W., Huszar, P.C., Sombatpanit, S., Enters, T. (Eds.), Incentives in Soil Conservation: From Theory to Practice. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, pp. 69-86.
122. Stonich, S., 1995. Development, rural impoverishment, and environmental destruction in Honduras. In: Painter, M., Durham, W.H. (Eds.), The social causes of environmental destruction in Latin America. The University of Michigan Press, pp. 63-99.
123. Subudhi, C.R., Pradhan, P.C., Senapati, P.C., 1998. Effect of grass bunds on erosion loss and yield of rainfed rice - Orissa, India. Newslett. Vetiver Network 19, 32-33.
124. Suppe, F., 1988. The limited applicability of agricultural research. Agric. Hum. Values 5 (4), 4-14.
125. Suresh, R., 2000. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. Standard Publishers, New Delhi.
126. Tengberg, A., Stocking, M., Dechen, S.C.F., 1998. Soil erosion and crop productivity research in South America. In: Blume, H.-P., Eger, H., Fleischhauer, E., Hebel, A., Reij, C., Stenier, K.G. (Eds.), Towards Sustainable Land Use: Furthering Cooperation Between People and Institution. Adv. Geoecol. 31, 355-362.
127. Toness, A.S., Thurow, T.L., Sierra, H., 1998. Sustainable Management of Tropical Hillsides: An Assessment of Terraces as a Soil and Water Conservation Technology. United States Agency for International Development Soil Management Collaborative Research Support Program, Technical Bulletin No. 98-1, University of Texas, Texas.
128. Turkelboom, F., Poesen, J., Ohler, I., van Keer, K., Ongprasert, S., Vlassak, K., 1997. Assessment of tillage erosion rates on steep slopes in northern Thailand. Catena 29, 29-44.
129. van Breeman, N., 1993. Soils as biotic constructs favouring net primary productivity. Geoderma 57, 183-211.
130. Wachter, D., 1994. Land titling: possible contributions to farmland conservation in Central America. In: Lutz, E., Pagiola, S., Reiche, C. (Eds.), Economic and Institutional Analyses of Soil Conservation Projects in Central America and the Caribbean. World Bank Environment Paper No. 8, Washington, DC, pp. 150-157.
131. Wall, J.R.D. (Ed.), 1981. A Management Plan for the Acelhuate River Catchment, El Salvador: Soil Conservation, River Stabilisation and Water Pollution Control. Land Resources Development Centre, Overseas Development Administration, UK.
132. Wiggins, S., 1981. A case study in cost-benefit analysis: soil conservation in the Rio Acelhuate river basin, El Salvador. In: Morgan, R. (Ed.), Soil Conservation. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 399-417.
133. World Bank, 1990. Vetiver Grass: The Hedge Against Erosion. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
134. Young, A., 1989. The potential of agroforestry for soil conservation and sustainable land use. In: Baum, E.E., Wolff, P., Zöbisch, M.A. (Eds.), The Extent of Soil Erosion - Regional Comparisons. Topics in Applied Resource Management in the Tropics, vol. 1. German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture, Witzenhausen, pp. 35-55.
135. Young, A., 1997. Agroforestry for Soil Management. CAB International, Wallingford.
136. Zaal, F., Laman, M., Sourang, C.M., 1998. Resource Conservation or Short Term Food Needs? Designing Incentives for Natural Resource Management, Issue Paper No. 77. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
137. Zimmerer, K., 1993. Soil erosion and labour shortages in the Andes with special reference to Bolivia, 1953-91: implications for 'conservation-with-development'. World Dev. 21 (10), 1659-1675.