Going Global? Internationalizing Australian Universities in a Time of Global Crisis

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 433-471+535

  Welch, Anthony ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0141767153     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/343120     Document Type: Review

References (279)

1. According to B. Could, "New Zealand universities . . . produce graduates at two-thirds the cost of an Australian graduate" ("Capital Ideas, Pity for Research," Australian, Supplement on Higher Education, December 2, 1998)
2. J. Knight, "A National Study on Internationalization at Canadian Universities," in Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education: A Comparative Study of Australia, Canada, Europe, and the USA, ed. H. de Wit (Amsterdam: European Association for International Education [EAIE] in association with the Program on Institutional Management in Higher Education [IMHE] of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 1995), pp. 99-120.
3. P. Jones, "Globalization and Internationalism: Democratic Prospects for World Education," Comparative Education 34, no. 2 (1999): 143-55, quote on 147.
4. See, e.g., A. Welch, "Understanding the Other? Internationalization or Globalization in Comparative Education," in Educational Sciences: Internationalization or Indigenisation? ed. C. Hsieh and S-K. Yang (Taipei: Shi Tah, 2000), pp. 77-118, "Quality and Equality in Third World Education," in Third World Education: Quality and Equality, ed. A. Welch (New York: Garland, 2000), pp. 3-28, "New Times, Hard Times: Re-reading Comparative Education at a Time of Discontent," in Discourse Formation in Comparative Education, ed. J. Schriewer (New York: Lang, 2000), pp. 189-226, and "The Triumph of Technocracy or the Collapse of Certainty? Modernity, Post-modernity, and Post-colonialism in Comparative Education," in Refraining Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and Local, ed. R. Arnove and C. Torres (Pittsburgh: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), pp. 25-50.
5. See, e.g., A. Welch, "Understanding the Other? Internationalization or Globalization in Comparative Education," in Educational Sciences: Internationalization or Indigenisation? ed. C. Hsieh and S-K. Yang (Taipei: Shi Tah, 2000), pp. 77-118, "Quality and Equality in Third World Education," in Third World Education: Quality and Equality, ed. A. Welch (New York: Garland, 2000), pp. 3-28, "New Times, Hard Times: Re-reading Comparative Education at a Time of Discontent," in Discourse Formation in Comparative Education, ed. J. Schriewer (New York: Lang, 2000), pp. 189-226, and "The Triumph of Technocracy or the Collapse of Certainty? Modernity, Post-modernity, and Post-colonialism in Comparative Education," in Refraining Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and Local, ed. R. Arnove and C. Torres (Pittsburgh: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), pp. 25-50.
6. See, e.g., A. Welch, "Understanding the Other? Internationalization or Globalization in Comparative Education," in Educational Sciences: Internationalization or Indigenisation? ed. C. Hsieh and S-K. Yang (Taipei: Shi Tah, 2000), pp. 77-118, "Quality and Equality in Third World Education," in Third World Education: Quality and Equality, ed. A. Welch (New York: Garland, 2000), pp. 3-28, "New Times, Hard Times: Re-reading Comparative Education at a Time of Discontent," in Discourse Formation in Comparative Education, ed. J. Schriewer (New York: Lang, 2000), pp. 189-226, and "The Triumph of Technocracy or the Collapse of Certainty? Modernity, Post-modernity, and Post-colonialism in Comparative Education," in Refraining Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and Local, ed. R. Arnove and C. Torres (Pittsburgh: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), pp. 25-50.
7. See, e.g., A. Welch, "Understanding the Other? Internationalization or Globalization in Comparative Education," in Educational Sciences: Internationalization or Indigenisation? ed. C. Hsieh and S-K. Yang (Taipei: Shi Tah, 2000), pp. 77-118, "Quality and Equality in Third World Education," in Third World Education: Quality and Equality, ed. A. Welch (New York: Garland, 2000), pp. 3-28, "New Times, Hard Times: Re-reading Comparative Education at a Time of Discontent," in Discourse Formation in Comparative Education, ed. J. Schriewer (New York: Lang, 2000), pp. 189-226, and "The Triumph of Technocracy or the Collapse of Certainty? Modernity, Post-modernity, and Post-colonialism in Comparative Education," in Refraining Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and Local, ed. R. Arnove and C. Torres (Pittsburgh: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), pp. 25-50.
8. A. Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), p. 27. faculty of education at the University of Sydney, Australia.
9. L. Sklair, "Globalization: New Approaches to Social Change," in Sociology: Issues and Debates, ed. S. Taylor (London: Macmillan, 1999), pp. 321-45, and "Social Movements and Global Capitalism," in The Cultures of Globalization, ed. F. Jameson and M. Miyoshi (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 291-311.
10. L. Sklair, "Globalization: New Approaches to Social Change," in Sociology: Issues and Debates, ed. S. Taylor (London: Macmillan, 1999), pp. 321-45, and "Social Movements and Global Capitalism," in The Cultures of Globalization, ed. F. Jameson and M. Miyoshi (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 291-311.
11. I. Wallerstein, The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), and "World System Analysis," in Social Theory Today, ed. A. Giddens and J. Turner (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), pp. 309-24; R. Arnove, "Comparative Education and World Systems Analysis, " in Comparative Education, ed. P. Altbach, R. Arnove, and G. Kelly (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 453-68.
12. I. Wallerstein, The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), and "World System Analysis," in Social Theory Today, ed. A. Giddens and J. Turner (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), pp. 309-24; R. Arnove, "Comparative Education and World Systems Analysis, " in Comparative Education, ed. P. Altbach, R. Arnove, and G. Kelly (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 453-68.
13. I. Wallerstein, The Capitalist World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), and "World System Analysis," in Social Theory Today, ed. A. Giddens and J. Turner (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), pp. 309-24; R. Arnove, "Comparative Education and World Systems Analysis, " in Comparative Education, ed. P. Altbach, R. Arnove, and G. Kelly (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 453-68.
14. For the debate over the role of culture within world systems analysis, see M. Featherstone, Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization, and Identity (London: Sage, 1990).
15. Z. Mlinar, ed., Globalization and Territorial Identities (Aldershot: Avebury, 1992); M. McLuhan, Understanding Media (London: Routledge, 1964).
16. Z. Mlinar, ed., Globalization and Territorial Identities (Aldershot: Avebury, 1992); M. McLuhan, Understanding Media (London: Routledge, 1964).
17. Appadurai, p. 4.
18. I b i d.
19. P. McLaren and R. Farahmandpur, "Teaching against Globalization and the New Imperialism: Toward a Revolutionary Pedagogy," Journal of Teacher Education 52, no. 2 (2001): 136-50; A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Globalisation and Educational Re-structuring in Asia and the Pacific, ed. K-H. Mok and A. Welch (London: Macmillan, in press).
20. P. McLaren and R. Farahmandpur, "Teaching against Globalization and the New Imperialism: Toward a Revolutionary Pedagogy," Journal of Teacher Education 52, no. 2 (2001): 136-50; A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Globalisation and Educational Re-structuring in Asia and the Pacific, ed. K-H. Mok and A. Welch (London: Macmillan, in press).
21. See, among others, M. Wilson, A. Qayyam, and R. Boshier, "World Wide America: Manufacturing Web Information," Distance Education 19, no. 1 (1998): 109-41.
22. See, respectively, D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); A. Giddens, Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), and The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991), p. 163.
23. See, respectively, D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); A. Giddens, Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), and The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991), p. 163.
24. See, respectively, D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); A. Giddens, Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 1995), and The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1991), p. 163.
25. See Sklair, "Globalization" (n. 6 above), p. 338. For a list of economic entities, see, among others, M. Latham, Civilizing Global Capital: New Thinking for Australian Labour (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1998), p. 11.
26. See Sklair, "Globalization" (n. 6 above), p. 338. For a list of economic entities, see, among others, M. Latham, Civilizing Global Capital: New Thinking for Australian Labour (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1998), p. 11.
27. R. Dahrendorf, "Die globale Klasse und die neue Ungleichheit" (The global class and new inequality), Merkur 11 (2000): 1057-68; L. Sklair, The Transnational Capitalist Class (London: Blackwell, 2001); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities," in The Professoriate: Profile of a Profession, ed. A. Welch (Amsterdam: Kluwer, in press).
28. R. Dahrendorf, "Die globale Klasse und die neue Ungleichheit" (The global class and new inequality), Merkur 11 (2000): 1057-68; L. Sklair, The Transnational Capitalist Class (London: Blackwell, 2001); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities," in The Professoriate: Profile of a Profession, ed. A. Welch (Amsterdam: Kluwer, in press).
29. R. Dahrendorf, "Die globale Klasse und die neue Ungleichheit" (The global class and new inequality), Merkur 11 (2000): 1057-68; L. Sklair, The Transnational Capitalist Class (London: Blackwell, 2001); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities," in The Professoriate: Profile of a Profession, ed. A. Welch (Amsterdam: Kluwer, in press).
30. See, among others, R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78, and "The Strange Disappearance of Civic America," American Prospect 24 (1996): 34-38; C. Cronin, "Netday in the United States and Australia: An Examination of Corporate and Community Involvement in Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2001); A. Welch, "Inter-nationalisation, Globalisation, and Higher Education Reforms," (in Korean) in Moonhwa Chayong-kwa Kyoyook-eui Geonyi: 21 seki Kyoyook Injuck Jawon Kaebal-eul Wehan Noneui (Cultural borrowing, educational transfer: Of education and human resource development for the twenty-first century), ed. T. Kim and R. Cowen, trans. T. Kim (Seoul: Mooneum-sa, 2001).
31. See, among others, R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78, and "The Strange Disappearance of Civic America," American Prospect 24 (1996): 34-38; C. Cronin, "Netday in the United States and Australia: An Examination of Corporate and Community Involvement in Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2001); A. Welch, "Inter-nationalisation, Globalisation, and Higher Education Reforms," (in Korean) in Moonhwa Chayong-kwa Kyoyook-eui Geonyi: 21 seki Kyoyook Injuck Jawon Kaebal-eul Wehan Noneui (Cultural borrowing, educational transfer: Of education and human resource development for the twenty-first century), ed. T. Kim and R. Cowen, trans. T. Kim (Seoul: Mooneum-sa, 2001).
32. See, among others, R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78, and "The Strange Disappearance of Civic America," American Prospect 24 (1996): 34-38; C. Cronin, "Netday in the United States and Australia: An Examination of Corporate and Community Involvement in Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2001); A. Welch, "Inter-nationalisation, Globalisation, and Higher Education Reforms," (in Korean) in Moonhwa Chayong-kwa Kyoyook-eui Geonyi: 21 seki Kyoyook Injuck Jawon Kaebal-eul Wehan Noneui (Cultural borrowing, educational transfer: Of education and human resource development for the twenty-first century), ed. T. Kim and R. Cowen, trans. T. Kim (Seoul: Mooneum-sa, 2001).
33. See, among others, R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78, and "The Strange Disappearance of Civic America," American Prospect 24 (1996): 34-38; C. Cronin, "Netday in the United States and Australia: An Examination of Corporate and Community Involvement in Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2001); A. Welch, "Inter-nationalisation, Globalisation, and Higher Education Reforms," (in Korean) in Moonhwa Chayong-kwa Kyoyook-eui Geonyi: 21 seki Kyoyook Injuck Jawon Kaebal-eul Wehan Noneui (Cultural borrowing, educational transfer: Of education and human resource development for the twenty-first century), ed. T. Kim and R. Cowen, trans. T. Kim (Seoul: Mooneum-sa, 2001).
34. See, among others, R. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78, and "The Strange Disappearance of Civic America," American Prospect 24 (1996): 34-38; C. Cronin, "Netday in the United States and Australia: An Examination of Corporate and Community Involvement in Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2001); A. Welch, "Inter-nationalisation, Globalisation, and Higher Education Reforms," (in Korean) in Moonhwa Chayong-kwa Kyoyook-eui Geonyi: 21 seki Kyoyook Injuck Jawon Kaebal-eul Wehan Noneui (Cultural borrowing, educational transfer: Of education and human resource development for the twenty-first century), ed. T. Kim and R. Cowen, trans. T. Kim (Seoul: Mooneum-sa, 2001).
35. "Truth Cure for Hansonitis," Australian, February 24-25, 2001, p. 18.
36. N. McGinn, "Education, Democratization, and Globalization: A Challenge for Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 40, no. 4 (1996): 341-57, quote on 350.
37. Giddens's point that, as consumers, we must take responsibility for eating genetically modified foods fails to consider that the exercise of this choice depends on accurate labeling, which business interests lobby national governments hard in order to prevent. His point about the inherent need for risk management in contemporary society as also the role of the state is too simple (as indeed is much of his analysis of globalization, which too readily simply ascribes many contemporary social phenomena - from funda- mentalism to the collapse of the USSR - to globalizacion, without closely enough detailing its internal processes or logic). For Giddens, see his Reith Lectures of 1999 for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which are available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith-99.
38. Ibid. As these words were being written, the German chancellor was putting forward plans for a European bicameral government, although arguably the strongest attachments in Europe still often remain at the local level, and "Europe" may still be a vague or problematic concept for many.
39. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
40. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
41. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
42. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
43. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
44. See Welch, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); A. Welch and K-H. Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" in Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above); J. Currie and J. Newsom, eds., Universities and Globalization (London: Sage, 1998); J. Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate"; S. Slaughter and L. Leslie, Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997); M. Miyoshi, "In Place of a Conclusion," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n. 6 above), pp. 371-84.
45. J. Knight and H. de Wit, "Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education: Historical and Conceptual Perspectives," in de Wit, ed. (n. 2 above), pp. 5-32, quote on p. 17.
46. See S-H. Toh and T. Farrelly, "The Formation of Third World Technocrats for Rural Development: A Critical Perspective on Australia's Role in Study Abroad," in Contemporary Perspectives in Comparative Education, ed. R. Burns and A. Welch (New York: Garland, 1992), pp. 115-50; H. Weiler, "The Political Dilemmas of Foreign Study," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 2 (1984): 168-79; A. Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees: Overseas Students and the Commodification of Higher Education in Australia and the United Kingdom," International Review of Education 34, no. 3 (1984): 387-97.
47. See S-H. Toh and T. Farrelly, "The Formation of Third World Technocrats for Rural Development: A Critical Perspective on Australia's Role in Study Abroad," in Contemporary Perspectives in Comparative Education, ed. R. Burns and A. Welch (New York: Garland, 1992), pp. 115-50; H. Weiler, "The Political Dilemmas of Foreign Study," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 2 (1984): 168-79; A. Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees: Overseas Students and the Commodification of Higher Education in Australia and the United Kingdom," International Review of Education 34, no. 3 (1984): 387-97.
48. See S-H. Toh and T. Farrelly, "The Formation of Third World Technocrats for Rural Development: A Critical Perspective on Australia's Role in Study Abroad," in Contemporary Perspectives in Comparative Education, ed. R. Burns and A. Welch (New York: Garland, 1992), pp. 115-50; H. Weiler, "The Political Dilemmas of Foreign Study," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 2 (1984): 168-79; A. Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees: Overseas Students and the Commodification of Higher Education in Australia and the United Kingdom," International Review of Education 34, no. 3 (1984): 387-97.
49. E. Pittaway, B. Ferguson, and C. Breen, "Worth More than Gold: The Unexpected Benefits Associated with Internationalisation of Tertiary Education," in Outcomes of International Education: Research Findings, set of commissioned research papers presented at the twelfth Australian international education conference, ed. International Development Program of Australian Universities (IDP) (Canberra: IDP, 1998), pp. 61-71.
50. J. Knight, Internationalisation: From Concept to Strategies, proceedings of the second annual conference of the David C. Lam Institute for East West Studies, Institutional Strategies for the Internationalisation of Higher Education (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University, 1996).
51. J. Knight, "Internationalisation of Canadian Universities," in Knight and de Wit, eds., p. 105.
52. For a comparative study of modes of integration in the United States and Australia, see C. Shinn, "Internationalisation of Higher Education: A Comparative Perspective on Policy and Curriculum Practice in Australia and the United States" (Ph.D. diss., University of Sydney, 2002).
53. On academic capitalism, see Slaughter and Leslie. On commodification, see Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," and "Education and the Cult of Efficiency: Comparative Reflections on the Reality and the Rhetoric," Comparative Education 34, no. 2 (1998): 157-75. On markets, see, among others, S. Marginson, Markets in Education (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); S. Gewirtz, S. Ball, and R. Bowe, Markets, Choice, and Equity in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1995); R. Jonathan, Illusory Freedoms: Liberalism, Education, and the Market (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).
54. On academic capitalism, see Slaughter and Leslie. On commodification, see Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," and "Education and the Cult of Efficiency: Comparative Reflections on the Reality and the Rhetoric," Comparative Education 34, no. 2 (1998): 157-75. On markets, see, among others, S. Marginson, Markets in Education (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); S. Gewirtz, S. Ball, and R. Bowe, Markets, Choice, and Equity in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1995); R. Jonathan, Illusory Freedoms: Liberalism, Education, and the Market (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).
55. On academic capitalism, see Slaughter and Leslie. On commodification, see Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," and "Education and the Cult of Efficiency: Comparative Reflections on the Reality and the Rhetoric," Comparative Education 34, no. 2 (1998): 157-75. On markets, see, among others, S. Marginson, Markets in Education (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); S. Gewirtz, S. Ball, and R. Bowe, Markets, Choice, and Equity in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1995); R. Jonathan, Illusory Freedoms: Liberalism, Education, and the Market (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).
56. On academic capitalism, see Slaughter and Leslie. On commodification, see Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," and "Education and the Cult of Efficiency: Comparative Reflections on the Reality and the Rhetoric," Comparative Education 34, no. 2 (1998): 157-75. On markets, see, among others, S. Marginson, Markets in Education (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); S. Gewirtz, S. Ball, and R. Bowe, Markets, Choice, and Equity in Education (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1995); R. Jonathan, Illusory Freedoms: Liberalism, Education, and the Market (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).
57. Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); N. Burbules and C. Torres, eds., Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2000); McLaren and Farahmandpur (n. 12 above); Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above).
58. Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); N. Burbules and C. Torres, eds., Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2000); McLaren and Farahmandpur (n. 12 above); Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above).
59. Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); N. Burbules and C. Torres, eds., Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2000); McLaren and Farahmandpur (n. 12 above); Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above).
60. Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); N. Burbules and C. Torres, eds., Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2000); McLaren and Farahmandpur (n. 12 above); Welch and Mok, eds. (n. 12 above).
61. R. Yang, Third Delight: The Internationalization of Higher Education in China (London: Routledge, 2002).
62. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
63. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
64. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
65. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
66. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
67. For more on the changes to the contemporary state and its impact on education, see M. Pusey, Economic Rationalism in Canberra: A Nation-Building State Changes Its Mind (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991); A. Yeatman, "Corporate Managers and the Shift from the Welfare to the Competition State," Discourse 13, no. 2 (1993): 3-9; P. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (London: Sage, 1990), and "Paradoxes of the Competition State: The Dynamics of Political Globalization," Government and Opposition 32, no. 2 (1997): 251-74; P. Altbach and L. Lewis, "The Academic Profession in International Perspective," in The International Academic Profession: Portraits from Fourteen Countries, ed. P. Altbach (Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching [CFAT], 1996), pp. 3-50; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above), "Education and the Cult of Efficiency," and Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education: Reform or Crisis? (New York: Lang, 1997).
68. This is not to say that vice-chancellors and the now almost ubiquitous deputy (or pro-) vice-chancellors (international) who have charge of this matter at Australian universities are not genuinely committed to internationalization; rather, that the fiscal dimension of international students is increasing in importance (although it is also the case that most institutions would probably find it easier to state precisely what their income from international students is than to specify commensurate costs).
69. It is no coincidence that three of the five largest host nations of international students are English speaking: the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The other two are France and Germany.
70. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
71. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
72. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
73. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
74. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
75. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002
76. I. Haron, "Rapid Expansion of Higher Education in Asia and the Need for Quality Assurance of Academic Programs, with Special Reference to the Case of Malaysia," Comparative Education Society of Asia (paper presented at the second annual conference of the Comparative Education Society of Asia, Normal University, Beijing, 1998); N. French, "Higher Education in Hong Kong: The External Dimension" (paper presented at the OECD/IMHE conference on International Strategies for Internationalization of Higher Education, Baptist University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 1996); C. Shinn, A. Welch, and N. Bagnall, "Culture of Competition? Comparing International Student Policies in Australia and the USA," Journal of Further and Higher Education 23, no. 1 (1999): 81-100; R. Yang and A. Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities: A Case Study of Guangzhou," World Studies in Education 2, no. 1 (2001): 21-51; Yang (n. 31 above); A. Welch and R. Yang, "A Pearl on the Silk Road: Internationalising a Regional Chinese University," in World Congress of Comparative Education (Chung Buk, Korea, July 2001). France has recently established EDUFRANCE as a portal to promote French higher education internationally. In Germany, the government wants to raise the existing rate of international students at German universities. Current figures show that in 2000-2001, 187,027 students were designated international of a total enrollment of 1,799,338. Roughly one-third of all students designated international had completed their Abitur (matriculation) in Germany. See Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland, "Destatis," 2000, available at http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/hochtab2.htm, last accessed August 12, 2002.
77. The United States has some 32 percent of the total number of international students worldwide, according to OECD data. The next largest educators of foreign students are (in descending order), the United Kingdom, 16 percent; Germany, 13 percent; France, 11 percent; and Australia, 8 percent (Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], Education at a Glance [Paris: OECD, 2000], p. 180).
78. P. Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education," International Higher Educational (Fall 2000): 3-5, and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA," International Higher Education 8 (1997): 4-5.
79. P. Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education," International Higher Educational (Fall 2000): 3-5, and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA," International Higher Education 8 (1997): 4-5.
80. Shinn et al.; National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges (NASULGC), Expanding the International Scope of Universities: A Strategic Vision for Learning, Scholarship, and Engagement in the New Century (Washington, D.C.: NASULGC, 2000).
81. Steven Kemp, "Exporting Higher Education: The International Flow of Students," working paper (Curtin University, School of Economics and Finance, 1990), p. 3.
82. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Education, Training, and Youth Affairs, Overseas Student Statistics, Australian Education International (Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service, 1999), p. 8.
83. C. Pyle, "Doing It Right: Recruitment in the 1990's," NAFSA Newsletter, October 1, 1991, pp. 12-14, p. 12.
84. See P. Williams, The Overseas Student Question (London: Heimemann, 1981) ; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above).
85. See P. Williams, The Overseas Student Question (London: Heimemann, 1981) ; Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees," (n. 24 above).
86. IDP (n. 25 above).
87. OECD, Education at a Glance, pp. 178, 180.
88. Altbach and Lewis (n. 32 above).
89. R. Zemsky, "Seminar on Post Massification," in Academic Reforms in the World: Situation and Perspective in the Massification Stage of Higher Education, Reports of the Six-Nation Higher Education Project seminar, Research Institute of Higher Education Seminar Reports, no. 10 (Hiroshima: Hiroshima University, 1997), pp. 1-20.
90. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
91. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
92. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
93. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
94. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education
95. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
96. See, among others, C. Goodwin and M. Nacht, Missing the Boat: The Failure to Internationalise American Higher Education (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); C. Somers and D. Ware, "A Guide to the Employment of International Students, Faculty, and Staff on College and University Campuses," CUPA Journal 44, no. 4 (1993): 15-22; B. Holzner and D. Greenwood, "The Institutional Policy Contexts for International Higher Education in the United States of America," in de Wit, ed., 33-68; Shinn et al. (n. 35 above); Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" and "The Coming Crisis in International Higher Education in the USA" (both in n. 37 above); P. Altbach and P. McGill Petersen, "Internationalise U.S. Higher Education? Not Exactly," International Higher Education 11 (Spring 1998): 15-17; and Shinn, Internationalisation of Higher Education (n. 28 above).
97. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Education, Training, and Youth Affairs (DETYA), Triennum Funding Report (Canberra: DETYA, 1998).
98. "Federal Funds Fall as Private Income Soars," Australian, December 23, 1998.
99. Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Education, Science, and Training (DEST), Overseas Student Statistics, 2000 (Canberra: DEST, 2001). This figure includes fee income only and represents an aggregate of both internal and "offshore" enrollments, the latter now representing some 48 percent of total international enrollments in Australian higher education. International enrollments in higher education now total some 60 percent of total international students.
100. Increasing regulation of private language colleges, including the introduction of a bond system, has mitigated this problem.
101. See D. Coleman, "The Core and the Periphery: Organisational and Transformative Trends in the Internationalization of Higher Education" (Ph.D. diss., University of New South Wales, 2001).
102. "Colleges Linked to People Smuggling," Sydney Morning Herald, August 13, 1999.
103. The German system, e.g., has long had considerable difficulties in this regard, and the phenomenon of tens of thousands of students who enroll but do not attend is acknowledged as a significant problem, even among its domestic students. Such students are colloquially termed Karteileichen (sleeping members). The difficulties of the United States in this respect have been apparent for some time. See Somers and Ware (n. 47 above); Holzner and Greenwood (n. 47 above); Shinn et al. (n. 35 above).
104. The German system, e.g., has long had considerable difficulties in this regard, and the phenomenon of tens of thousands of students who enroll but do not attend is acknowledged as a significant problem, even among its domestic students. Such students are colloquially termed Karteileichen (sleeping members). The difficulties of the United States in this respect have been apparent for some time. See Somers and Ware (n. 47 above); Holzner and Greenwood (n. 47 above); Shinn et al. (n. 35 above).
105. The German system, e.g., has long had considerable difficulties in this regard, and the phenomenon of tens of thousands of students who enroll but do not attend is acknowledged as a significant problem, even among its domestic students. Such students are colloquially termed Karteileichen (sleeping members). The difficulties of the United States in this respect have been apparent for some time. See Somers and Ware (n. 47 above); Holzner and Greenwood (n. 47 above); Shinn et al. (n. 35 above).
106. P. Saunders, Married Women's Earnings and Family Income Inequality in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1993), and "Economic Adjustment and Distributional Change: Income Inequality in Australia in the Eighties," Social Policy Research Centre, Discussion Paper no. 47 (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1993); P. Saunders and G. Matheson, An Ever Rising Tide? Poverty in Australia in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1991). See also Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above), and "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Mok and Welch, eds. (n. 12 above).
107. P. Saunders, Married Women's Earnings and Family Income Inequality in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1993), and "Economic Adjustment and Distributional Change: Income Inequality in Australia in the Eighties," Social Policy Research Centre, Discussion Paper no. 47 (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1993); P. Saunders and G. Matheson, An Ever Rising Tide? Poverty in Australia in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1991). See also Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above), and "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Mok and Welch, eds. (n. 12 above).
108. P. Saunders, Married Women's Earnings and Family Income Inequality in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1993), and "Economic Adjustment and Distributional Change: Income Inequality in Australia in the Eighties," Social Policy Research Centre, Discussion Paper no. 47 (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1993); P. Saunders and G. Matheson, An Ever Rising Tide? Poverty in Australia in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1991). See also Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above), and "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Mok and Welch, eds. (n. 12 above).
109. P. Saunders, Married Women's Earnings and Family Income Inequality in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1993), and "Economic Adjustment and Distributional Change: Income Inequality in Australia in the Eighties," Social Policy Research Centre, Discussion Paper no. 47 (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1993); P. Saunders and G. Matheson, An Ever Rising Tide? Poverty in Australia in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1991). See also Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above), and "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Mok and Welch, eds. (n. 12 above).
110. P. Saunders, Married Women's Earnings and Family Income Inequality in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1993), and "Economic Adjustment and Distributional Change: Income Inequality in Australia in the Eighties," Social Policy Research Centre, Discussion Paper no. 47 (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1993); P. Saunders and G. Matheson, An Ever Rising Tide? Poverty in Australia in the Eighties (Sydney: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre, 1991). See also Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above), and "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia: The Politics of Reform, or the Reform of Politics?" in Mok and Welch, eds. (n. 12 above).
111. Pusey (n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above); Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education for the Third Millennium," Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 475-92.
112. Pusey (n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above); Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education for the Third Millennium," Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 475-92.
113. Pusey (n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above); Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education for the Third Millennium," Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 475-92.
114. Pusey (n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above); Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education for the Third Millennium," Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 475-92.
115. Pusey (n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above); Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education for the Third Millennium," Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 475-92.
116. A. Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor: The Internationalisation of the Academic Profession," Higher Education ("The International Survey of the Academic Profession," ed. A. Welch) 34, no. 1 (1997): 323-45, and "From Peregrinatio Academica to the Global Academic: The Internationalisation of the Academic Profession," in Welch, ed., The Professoriate (n. 16 above).
117. A. Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor: The Internationalisation of the Academic Profession," Higher Education ("The International Survey of the Academic Profession," ed. A. Welch) 34, no. 1 (1997): 323-45, and "From Peregrinatio Academica to the Global Academic: The Internationalisation of the Academic Profession," in Welch, ed., The Professoriate (n. 16 above).
118. See French (n. 35 above), p. 7.
119. S. Fitzgerald, Is Australia an Asian Country? Can Australia Survive an East Asian Future? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); A. Welch, "Mabo, Multiculturalism and Mahatir: Questions of Australian Education and Cultural Identity," in Potsdam Papers in Australian Studies, no. 2 (Potsdam: Australia Centre, 1999), pp. 1-33; J. Kinsella, "A Patch of Ground," Westerly 44, no. 1 (1999): 34-49.
120. S. Fitzgerald, Is Australia an Asian Country? Can Australia Survive an East Asian Future? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); A. Welch, "Mabo, Multiculturalism and Mahatir: Questions of Australian Education and Cultural Identity," in Potsdam Papers in Australian Studies, no. 2 (Potsdam: Australia Centre, 1999), pp. 1-33; J. Kinsella, "A Patch of Ground," Westerly 44, no. 1 (1999): 34-49.
121. S. Fitzgerald, Is Australia an Asian Country? Can Australia Survive an East Asian Future? (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1997); A. Welch, "Mabo, Multiculturalism and Mahatir: Questions of Australian Education and Cultural Identity," in Potsdam Papers in Australian Studies, no. 2 (Potsdam: Australia Centre, 1999), pp. 1-33; J. Kinsella, "A Patch of Ground," Westerly 44, no. 1 (1999): 34-49.
122. J. Croome, Reshaping the World Trading System, 2d ed. (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 1999); World Trade Organization (WTO) Secretariat, From GATT to the WTO (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2000).
123. J. Croome, Reshaping the World Trading System, 2d ed. (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 1999); World Trade Organization (WTO) Secretariat, From GATT to the WTO (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2000).
124. Appadurai (n. 5 above), p. 37; see also D. Anderson, Sources of Australian Academics' Qualifications (Canberra: DEET, 1993); M. Baker, F. Robertson, and J. Sloan, The Role of Immigration in the Australian Higher Education Labour Market (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1993); National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in U.S. Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook (Washington, D.C., 1986).
125. Appadurai (n. 5 above), p. 37; see also D. Anderson, Sources of Australian Academics' Qualifications (Canberra: DEET, 1993); M. Baker, F. Robertson, and J. Sloan, The Role of Immigration in the Australian Higher Education Labour Market (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1993); National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in U.S. Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook (Washington, D.C., 1986).
126. Appadurai (n. 5 above), p. 37; see also D. Anderson, Sources of Australian Academics' Qualifications (Canberra: DEET, 1993); M. Baker, F. Robertson, and J. Sloan, The Role of Immigration in the Australian Higher Education Labour Market (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1993); National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in U.S. Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook (Washington, D.C., 1986).
127. Appadurai (n. 5 above), p. 37; see also D. Anderson, Sources of Australian Academics' Qualifications (Canberra: DEET, 1993); M. Baker, F. Robertson, and J. Sloan, The Role of Immigration in the Australian Higher Education Labour Market (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1993); National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in U.S. Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook (Washington, D.C., 1986).
128. L. Saha and C. Atkinson, "Insiders and Outsiders: Migrant Academics in an Australian University," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 19(1978): 201-16.
129. B. Sheehan and A. Welch, The Australian Academic Profession (Canberra: DEET, 1996).
130. Ibid.; B. Sheehan and A. Welch, "The International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia," in Altbach, ed. (n. 32 above), pp. 51-93.
131. Ibid.; B. Sheehan and A. Welch, "The International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia," in Altbach, ed. (n. 32 above), pp. 51-93.
132. Altbach and Lewis (n. 32 above); Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor" and "From Peregrinatio Academica to the Global Academic" (both in n. 57 above).
133. Altbach and Lewis (n. 32 above); Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor" and "From Peregrinatio Academica to the Global Academic" (both in n. 57 above).
134. Sheehan and Welch, The Australian Academic Profession, and "The International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia."
135. See Anderson.
136. See Baker et al.
137. See J. Niland, "The Fate of Australian Science-The Fate of Australian Universities" (speech to the National Press Club, February 25, 1998); and S. Marginson, "Academic Salaries in Australia, 1967-1990," Australian Universities Review 2 (1989); 14-23. The significant fall of the Australian dollar, particularly against the U.S. dollar and sterling, has aggravated this relative decline in salaries.
138. See J. Niland, "The Fate of Australian Science-The Fate of Australian Universities" (speech to the National Press Club, February 25, 1998); and S. Marginson, "Academic Salaries in Australia, 1967-1990," Australian Universities Review 2 (1989); 14-23. The significant fall of the Australian dollar, particularly against the U.S. dollar and sterling, has aggravated this relative decline in salaries.
139. Sheehan and Welch, The Australian Academic Profession, and International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia; Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor."
140. Sheehan and Welch, The Australian Academic Profession, and International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia; Welch, "The Peripatetic Professor."
141. Croome, Reshaping the World Trading System (n. 60 above); World Trade Organization Secretariat, From GATT to the WTO (n. 60 above).
142. Croome, Reshaping the World Trading System (n. 60 above); World Trade Organization Secretariat, From GATT to the WTO (n. 60 above).
143. See on Europe, J. Enders and U. Teichler, "Academics' Views of Teaching Staff Mobility: The ERASMUS Experience Revisited," in Welch, ed., The Professoriate; R. Kreitz and U. Teichler, ERASMUS Teaching Staff Mobility: The 1990/91 Teachers' View: Pre-publication Report (Kassel: Centre for Research on Higher Education and Work, 1995).
144. See on Europe, J. Enders and U. Teichler, "Academics' Views of Teaching Staff Mobility: The ERASMUS Experience Revisited," in Welch, ed., The Professoriate; R. Kreitz and U. Teichler, ERASMUS Teaching Staff Mobility: The 1990/91 Teachers' View: Pre-publication Report (Kassel: Centre for Research on Higher Education and Work, 1995).
145. There are, of course, counterexamples, including the recently announced European Commission Australia Academic Exchange Agreement. See http://www. europa.eu.int/comm/education/australia/ australia.html.
146. See Pusey (n. 32 above); Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalization, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); Marginson, Markets in Education; M. Griffin Cohen, "The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for Public Post Secondary Education in Australia," Australian Universities Review, no. 1 (2000): 9-15.
147. See Pusey (n. 32 above); Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalization, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); Marginson, Markets in Education; M. Griffin Cohen, "The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for Public Post Secondary Education in Australia," Australian Universities Review, no. 1 (2000): 9-15.
148. See Pusey (n. 32 above); Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalization, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); Marginson, Markets in Education; M. Griffin Cohen, "The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for Public Post Secondary Education in Australia," Australian Universities Review, no. 1 (2000): 9-15.
149. See Pusey (n. 32 above); Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalization, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); Marginson, Markets in Education; M. Griffin Cohen, "The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for Public Post Secondary Education in Australia," Australian Universities Review, no. 1 (2000): 9-15.
150. See Pusey (n. 32 above); Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalization, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above); Marginson, Markets in Education; M. Griffin Cohen, "The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for Public Post Secondary Education in Australia," Australian Universities Review, no. 1 (2000): 9-15.
151. S. Marginson, "Australian Academic Salaries: Trends and Relativities," Australian Bulletin of Labour 17, no. 1 (1991): 49-72, and "Academic Salaries in Australia"; Niland.
152. S. Marginson, "Australian Academic Salaries: Trends and Relativities," Australian Bulletin of Labour 17, no. 1 (1991): 49-72, and "Academic Salaries in Australia"; Niland.
153. Niland, p. 13.
154. A significant proportion of this estimate is accounted for by the failure of academic salaries to keep pace with inflation.
155. G. McCulloch, "Vice Chancellors Should Get Their Act Together, " National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) Advocate 6, no. 1 (March 1999): 3; Niland (n. 69 above); R. Dearing, Higher Education in the Learning Society: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1997).
156. G. McCulloch, "Vice Chancellors Should Get Their Act Together, " National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) Advocate 6, no. 1 (March 1999): 3; Niland (n. 69 above); R. Dearing, Higher Education in the Learning Society: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1997).
157. G. McCulloch, "Vice Chancellors Should Get Their Act Together, " National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) Advocate 6, no. 1 (March 1999): 3; Niland (n. 69 above); R. Dearing, Higher Education in the Learning Society: The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1997).
158. R. Blackford, "Don't Panic: The Universities and Their Troubles," Quadrant (January-February 1999): 11-17, quote on 11.
159. "Sorry Story of Scholar v. the Dollar," Sydney Morning Herald, January 8, 2001, and "Research Spending Plunges," Sydney Morning Herald, July 4, 2000; Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above).
160. "Sorry Story of Scholar v. the Dollar," Sydney Morning Herald, January 8, 2001, and "Research Spending Plunges," Sydney Morning Herald, July 4, 2000; Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above).
161. "Sorry Story of Scholar v. the Dollar," Sydney Morning Herald, January 8, 2001, and "Research Spending Plunges," Sydney Morning Herald, July 4, 2000; Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above).
162. See, e.g., D. Crystal, English as a Global Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); in relation to internationalization, see Yang (n. 31 above), pp. 156-62.
163. See, e.g., D. Crystal, English as a Global Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); in relation to internationalization, see Yang (n. 31 above), pp. 156-62.
164. Weiler (n. 24 above); Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees" (n. 24 above); Toh and Farrelly (n. 24 above).
165. Weiler (n. 24 above); Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees" (n. 24 above); Toh and Farrelly (n. 24 above).
166. Weiler (n. 24 above); Welch, "For Sale, by Degrees" (n. 24 above); Toh and Farrelly (n. 24 above).
167. OECD, "Education in a New International Setting," Curriculum Development for Internationalisation: Guidelines for Country Case Study (Paris: OECD/CERI, 1994); IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization: Australian Case Studies and Stocktake, OECD/CERI Study (Canberra: IDP, 1995).
168. OECD, "Education in a New International Setting," Curriculum Development for Internationalisation: Guidelines for Country Case Study (Paris: OECD/CERI, 1994); IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization: Australian Case Studies and Stocktake, OECD/CERI Study (Canberra: IDP, 1995).
169. IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalisation, p. 67.
170. Ibid., p. 69.
171. Ibid., p. 71.
172. Toh and Farrelly.
173. This is by no means a simple matter to resolve, as attempts to tailor courses to international contexts have sometimes been criticized by international students, some of whom feel that this difference represents a less than equal form of education.
174. G. Maslen, "His Master's Angry Voice," Bulletin, July 12, 1994, p. 27.
175. "Federal Funds Fall as Private Income Soars" (n. 49 above).
176. Maslen, p. 27.
177. Niland (n. 69 above), p. 4.
178. This is not to deny the issue of cultural globalization contained in the argument that, because so much material on the Web is not merely in the English language but also originates from the United States, this is having a distorting effect on distance education programs. See Wilson et al. (n. 13 above).
179. See, among others, N. Fairclough, "Critical Discourse Analysis and the Marketization of Public Discourse: The Universities," in Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (London: Longmans, 1995), pp. 130-66; Yang (n. 31 above); Yang and Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities" (n. 35 above).
180. See, among others, N. Fairclough, "Critical Discourse Analysis and the Marketization of Public Discourse: The Universities," in Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (London: Longmans, 1995), pp. 130-66; Yang (n. 31 above); Yang and Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities" (n. 35 above).
181. See, among others, N. Fairclough, "Critical Discourse Analysis and the Marketization of Public Discourse: The Universities," in Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (London: Longmans, 1995), pp. 130-66; Yang (n. 31 above); Yang and Welch, "Internationalising Chinese Universities" (n. 35 above).
182. Giddens, Beyond Left and Right (n. 14 above).
183. M. Miyoshi, "'Globalization' Culture and the University," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n: 6 above), pp. 247-72; Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State"; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
184. M. Miyoshi, "'Globalization' Culture and the University," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n: 6 above), pp. 247-72; Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State"; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
185. M. Miyoshi, "'Globalization' Culture and the University," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n: 6 above), pp. 247-72; Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State"; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
186. M. Miyoshi, "'Globalization' Culture and the University," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n: 6 above), pp. 247-72; Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State"; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
187. M. Miyoshi, "'Globalization' Culture and the University," in Jameson and Miyoshi, eds. (n: 6 above), pp. 247-72; Currie and Newsom (n. 22 above); Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above), and "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State"; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
188. Jones (n. 3 above), p. 13.
189. Jones, citing P. Hirst and P. Thompson, Globalization in Question (Cambridge: Polity, 1996), p. 196.
190. J. Gee, G. Hull, and C. Lankshear, New Work Order: Behind the Language of the New Capitalism (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1998).
191. B. Sheehan, "The Evaluation of Higher Education in Australia," in The World Yearbook of Education: The Evaluation of Higher Education, ed. R. Cowen (London: Kogan Page, 1996), pp. 25-58.
192. Gee et al.
193. Altbach and Lewis (n. 32 above), p. 13..
194. K. Ohmae, Borderless World (London: Collins, 1990), and End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies (London: Harper Collins, 1995).
195. K. Ohmae, Borderless World (London: Collins, 1990), and End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies (London: Harper Collins, 1995).
196. To this, presumably, must be added the more than US$600 billion that the International Monetary Fund estimates is the total of money laundered on the international financial system in the form of profits from illegal trade in drugs, etc. See "Make Crime Pay for Development," Financial Times, September 2, 2001.
197. Appadurai (n. 5 above).
198. J. Habermas, "The European Nation-State: Its Achievements and Its Limits: On the Past and Future of Sovereignty and Citizenship," in Mapping the Nation, ed. G. Balakrishnan (London: Verso, 1999), pp. 281-94, quotation on p. 13.
199. Griffin Cohen (n. 74 above), p. 10.
200. I b i d.
201. Ibid., p. 11.
202. Each of the 21 signatories has committed itself to cross-border trade in education in specific sectors, such as higher education, adult education, etc. See table 1 in Griffin Cohen.
203. World Trade Organization (WTO), "GATS - Fact and Fiction" (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2001), pp. 8-9, available on line at http://www.wto.org.english/tratop_e/serv_e/gats_factfiction_e.htm, last accessed September 5, 2002.
204. Griffin Cohen, p. 12.
205. World Trade Organization (WTO), Council for Trade in Services, "Education Services: Background Notes by the Secretariat, " September 23, 1998, p. 9, available on line at http://www.wto.org/ english/tratop_e/serv_e/w49.doc, last accessed September 5, 2002.
206. See World Trade Organization (WTO), "GATS-Fact and Fiction." Here, too, the sting in the tail alludes to ongoing negotiations to develop "the necessary multilateral disciplines" (p. 9).
207. The financial industry is an example. The recent merger between U.S. financial giants, Bank of America and Nations Bank, e.g., has yielded a huge financial conglomerate with an overall budget larger than that of many national economies. Telecommunications has proven to be another fertile field for massive mergers between companies, and this has global implications, including for education. Sklair's 1999 data, e.g., show that of the top 100 global financial entities, 47 are companies. See Sklair, "Sociology: Issues and Debates," (n. 6 above).
208. M. Castells, End of Millennium, vol. 3 of The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), p. 323.
209. F. Stilwell, "Australia Reconstructed: Oops, Missed the Turning," Australian Journal of Political Economy 39(1997): 39-47; Welch, "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State" (n. 56 above).
210. F. Stilwell, "Australia Reconstructed: Oops, Missed the Turning," Australian Journal of Political Economy 39(1997): 39-47; Welch, "Globalization, Post-modernity and the State" (n. 56 above).
211. McGinn (n. 19 above), p. 350; J. Quiggin, Great Expectations: Microeconomic Reforms in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1996).
212. McGinn (n. 19 above), p. 350; J. Quiggin, Great Expectations: Microeconomic Reforms in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1996).
213. Pusey (n. 32 above); Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics and "Paradoxes of the Competition State" (both in n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above).
214. Pusey (n. 32 above); Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics and "Paradoxes of the Competition State" (both in n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above).
215. Pusey (n. 32 above); Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics and "Paradoxes of the Competition State" (both in n. 32 above); Yeatman (n. 32 above).
216. G. Soros, The Crisis of Global Capitalism (London: Penguin, 1990).
217. G. Soros, "Financial Fallout," Sydney Morning Herald, December 1, 1998, p. 28.
218. See Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Postmodernity and the State" (n. 56 above); J. Enders, "A Comparative Perspective on Academic Staff in Europe," in Academic Staff in Europe: Changing Contexts and Conditions, ed. J. Enders (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001), p. 2.
219. See Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Postmodernity and the State" (n. 56 above); J. Enders, "A Comparative Perspective on Academic Staff in Europe," in Academic Staff in Europe: Changing Contexts and Conditions, ed. J. Enders (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001), p. 2.
220. See Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above), and "Globalization, Postmodernity and the State" (n. 56 above); J. Enders, "A Comparative Perspective on Academic Staff in Europe," in Academic Staff in Europe: Changing Contexts and Conditions, ed. J. Enders (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001), p. 2.
221. Pusey; Yeatman; and Welch, Class, Culture and the State in Australian Education (n. 32 above).
222. Marginson, "Australian Academic Salaries" (n. 75 above), and "Academic Salaries in Australia, 1967-1990" (n. 69 above).
223. Marginson, "Australian Academic Salaries" (n. 75 above), and "Academic Salaries in Australia, 1967-1990" (n. 69 above).
224. Research Spending Plunges" and "Sorry Story of Scholar v. the Dollar" (both in n. 80 above);
225. Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above).
226. The extent to which this inexorable push for more output with lessening input levels yields genuine efficiency increases is, of course, moot: see, among others, Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency."
227. Innovation Summit, Innovation: Unlocking the Future (Canberra: DETYA, 2000), p. 25.
228. Ibid., p. 12
229. Ibid., p. 13.
230. Welch and Mok, "Globalisation, Structural Adjustment and Contemporary Educational Reforms in Australia" (n. 12 above).
231. Innovation Summit, p. 16. All amounts have been converted to U.S. dollars.
232. Ibid., p. 15.
233. See Chief Scientist, "The Chance to Change," discussion paper (Canberra, Office of the Chief Scientist, 2000), pp. 20-25.
234. The quote, which is by one such former minister, is in J. Currie, "Globalization Practices and the Professoriate in Anglo-Pacific and North American Universities," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 15-29, p. 15.
235. See ibid.; Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities" (n. 22 above); J-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above) and "The End of Certainty? The Academic Profession and the Challenge of Change," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-14.
236. See ibid.; Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities" (n. 22 above); J-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above) and "The End of Certainty? The Academic Profession and the Challenge of Change," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-14.
237. See ibid.; Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities" (n. 22 above); J-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above) and "The End of Certainty? The Academic Profession and the Challenge of Change," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-14.
238. See ibid.; Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities" (n. 22 above); J-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above) and "The End of Certainty? The Academic Profession and the Challenge of Change," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-14.
239. See ibid.; Currie, "Globalization's Impact on the Professoriate in Anglo American Universities" (n. 22 above); J-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); Welch, "Education and the Cult of Efficiency" (n. 29 above) and "The End of Certainty? The Academic Profession and the Challenge of Change," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 1 (1998): 1-14.
240. Sheehan and Welch, "The Australian Academic Profession" (n. 63 above) and "The International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia" (n. 64 above).
241. Sheehan and Welch, "The Australian Academic Profession" (n. 63 above) and "The International Survey of the Academic Profession: Australia" (n. 64 above).
242. See, among others, P. Rutanen, "Learning Societies and Global Information Infrastructure (GII), Global Information Society (GIS)" (keynote speech of the OECD/IMHE conference on Institutional Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education, David C. Lam Institute, Hong Kong Baptist University, December 1996) ; P. Turnbull, "Conversational Scholarship in Cyberspace: The Evolution and Activities of H-Net, the Online Network for the Humanities," Australian Universities Review 39, no, 1 (1996): 12-15; IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization (n. 83 above); S. Weber, "The Future Campus; Virtual or Reality," Australian, September 18, 1996; Welch, "The End of Certainty?"
243. See, among others, P. Rutanen, "Learning Societies and Global Information Infrastructure (GII), Global Information Society (GIS)" (keynote speech of the OECD/IMHE conference on Institutional Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education, David C. Lam Institute, Hong Kong Baptist University, December 1996) ; P. Turnbull, "Conversational Scholarship in Cyberspace: The Evolution and Activities of H-Net, the Online Network for the Humanities," Australian Universities Review 39, no, 1 (1996): 12-15; IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization (n. 83 above); S. Weber, "The Future Campus; Virtual or Reality," Australian, September 18, 1996; Welch, "The End of Certainty?"
244. See, among others, P. Rutanen, "Learning Societies and Global Information Infrastructure (GII), Global Information Society (GIS)" (keynote speech of the OECD/IMHE conference on Institutional Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education, David C. Lam Institute, Hong Kong Baptist University, December 1996) ; P. Turnbull, "Conversational Scholarship in Cyberspace: The Evolution and Activities of H-Net, the Online Network for the Humanities," Australian Universities Review 39, no, 1 (1996): 12-15; IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization (n. 83 above); S. Weber, "The Future Campus; Virtual or Reality," Australian, September 18, 1996; Welch, "The End of Certainty?"
245. See, among others, P. Rutanen, "Learning Societies and Global Information Infrastructure (GII), Global Information Society (GIS)" (keynote speech of the OECD/IMHE conference on Institutional Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education, David C. Lam Institute, Hong Kong Baptist University, December 1996) ; P. Turnbull, "Conversational Scholarship in Cyberspace: The Evolution and Activities of H-Net, the Online Network for the Humanities," Australian Universities Review 39, no, 1 (1996): 12-15; IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization (n. 83 above); S. Weber, "The Future Campus; Virtual or Reality," Australian, September 18, 1996; Welch, "The End of Certainty?"
246. See, among others, P. Rutanen, "Learning Societies and Global Information Infrastructure (GII), Global Information Society (GIS)" (keynote speech of the OECD/IMHE conference on Institutional Strategies for Internationalisation of Higher Education, David C. Lam Institute, Hong Kong Baptist University, December 1996) ; P. Turnbull, "Conversational Scholarship in Cyberspace: The Evolution and Activities of H-Net, the Online Network for the Humanities," Australian Universities Review 39, no, 1 (1996): 12-15; IDP, Curriculum Development for Internationalization (n. 83 above); S. Weber, "The Future Campus; Virtual or Reality," Australian, September 18, 1996; Welch, "The End of Certainty?"
247. D. Noble, "Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education," first monday 3, no. 1 (October 1998): 1-6, available on line at http://firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_l, and "Digital Diploma Mills, Part III: The Bloom Is Off the Rose" (December 1998): 1-9, available on line at http://communication .ucsd.edu/dl/ddm3.html.
248. D. Noble, "Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education," first monday 3, no. 1 (October 1998): 1-6, available on line at http://firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_l, and "Digital Diploma Mills, Part III: The Bloom Is Off the Rose" (December 1998): 1-9, available on line at http://communication .ucsd.edu/dl/ddm3.html.
249. Noble, "Digital Diploma Mills," p. 1.
250. I b i d.
251. I b i d.
252. Noble, "Digital Diploma Mills, Part III," p. 2.
253. Ibid., p. 6. Noble cites evidence by K. Green of the Campus Computing Project: "We have yet to hear of an instance where the total costs (including all realistically amortized capital investments and development costs, plus reasonable estimates for faculty and support staff time) associated with teaching some unit to some groups of students actually decline, while maintaining the quality of learning."
254. S. Cunningham, Y. Ryan, L. Stedman, S. Tapsall, K. Bagdon, and T. Flew, New Media and Borderless Education: A Review of the Convergence between Global Media Networks and Higher Education Provision (Canberra: DETYA 1998); S. Cunningham, Y. Ryan, L. Stedman, S. Tapsall, K. Bagdon, T. Flew, and P. Coaldrake, The Business of Borderless Education (Canberra: DETYA 2000).
255. S. Cunningham, Y. Ryan, L. Stedman, S. Tapsall, K. Bagdon, and T. Flew, New Media and Borderless Education: A Review of the Convergence between Global Media Networks and Higher Education Provision (Canberra: DETYA 1998); S. Cunningham, Y. Ryan, L. Stedman, S. Tapsall, K. Bagdon, T. Flew, and P. Coaldrake, The Business of Borderless Education (Canberra: DETYA 2000).
256. "Teachers Learn New Tech the Hard Way," Australian, July 5, 2000. This compares with U.S. data that shows that some 44 percent of U.S. institutions were offering on-line courses in 1999, up from 33 percent in 1995. See National Center for Educational Statistics, "Post Secondary Distance Education, 1999," available on line at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid = 2000013.
257. "Teachers Learn New Tech the Hard Way," Australian, July 5, 2000. This compares with U.S. data that shows that some 44 percent of U.S. institutions were offering on-line courses in 1999, up from 33 percent in 1995. See National Center for Educational Statistics, "Post Secondary Distance Education, 1999," available on line at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid = 2000013.
258. C. McInnis, The Work Roles of Academics in Australian Universities (Canberra: DETYA [EIP], 1999).
259. "Substance the Key Factor in New-Style University," Australian, May 7, 2000, p. 28.
260. "Students Attracted by Dot Com Degrees," Australian, March 22, 2000, p. 33. Much the same rationale is behind the development of such international consortia as Universitas 21, which involves two major Australian universities with partners in the United Kingdom and the United States.
261. Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" (n. 37 above), p. 4. In this sense, the conclusion that these newer providers, such as Phoenix, who principally focus on the adult, employed learner (Cunningham et al., The Business of Borderless Education), will not. compete much with the traditional universities, seems unduly optimistic. It is, of course, germane to point out that Phoenix University is able to contain the costs of its programs, since it has no tenured staff and few if any facilities such as libraries, while its staff is not expected to undertake research.
262. Altbach, "The Crisis in Multinational Higher Education" (n. 37 above), p. 4. In this sense, the conclusion that these newer providers, such as Phoenix, who principally focus on the adult, employed learner (Cunningham et al., The Business of Borderless Education), will not. compete much with the traditional universities, seems unduly optimistic. It is, of course, germane to point out that Phoenix University is able to contain the costs of its programs, since it has no tenured staff and few if any facilities such as libraries, while its staff is not expected to undertake research.
263. "Real Costs of On-Line Learning," Australian, July 5, 2000, p. 29.
264. I b i d.
265. "Call for a Virtual Watchdog," Australian, November 9, 1998
266. For example, one of Australia's largest distance education universities provides course lectures on line via its library. Other than variable sound quality, however, the unavailability of any visual images is also an issue.
267. See, among others, Gee et al. (n. 99 above); H-P. Martin and H. Schumann, The Global Trap: Globalization and the Assault on Democracy and Prosperity (London: Zed, 1997).
268. See, among others, Gee et al. (n. 99 above); H-P. Martin and H. Schumann, The Global Trap: Globalization and the Assault on Democracy and Prosperity (London: Zed, 1997).
269. "Special Report: The Global Economy," Newsweek International, October 12, 1998, p. 24B.
270. It has been calculated, e.g., that Bill Gates's fortune is equivalent to the "combined net worth of the 106 million poorest Americans" (S. A. Khan, "Free Market Failures," Newsweek, October 12, 1998, p. 24C).
271. J. Edwards, "Crash and Learn," Australian's Review of Books, October 1998, p. 13.
272. Lord R. Dearing, '"The Full-on University," Australian, October 14, 1998, pp. 34-36, quote on p. 36.
273. Sheehan and Welch, "The Academic Profession in Australia" (n. 63 above). See, on the United States, E. Benjamin, "Overreliance on Part-Time Faculty: An American Trend," International Higher Education 21 (Fall 2000): 7-9.
274. Sheehan and Welch, "The Academic Profession in Australia" (n. 63 above). See, on the United States, E. Benjamin, "Overreliance on Part-Time Faculty: An American Trend," International Higher Education 21 (Fall 2000): 7-9.
275. Mega corporations such as Newscorp, Disney, and Time Warner/AOL, in their quest for "content," are actively embracing educational business partners in the form of university consortia, such as Universitas 21. See, among others, McLaren and Farahmandpur (n. 12 above);
276. N. Witheford, "Cycles of Circuits and Struggles in High-Technology Capitalism," in Cutting Edge: Technology Information and Capitalism and Social Revolution, ed. J. Davis, T. Hirschill, and M. Stack (London: Verso, 1997), pp. 195-242; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
277. N. Witheford, "Cycles of Circuits and Struggles in High-Technology Capitalism," in Cutting Edge: Technology Information and Capitalism and Social Revolution, ed. J. Davis, T. Hirschill, and M. Stack (London: Verso, 1997), pp. 195-242; Welch and Mok, "Conclusion: Deep Development or Deep Division?" (n. 22 above).
278. Years of underfunding means few are wealthy any longer.
279. Dearing, "The Full-on University," p. 34.