How work gains meaning in contractual time: A narrative model for reconstructing the work ethic

Journal of Business Ethics

Volumn 38, Issue 1-2, 2002, Pages 65-79

  Herman, Stewart W ^a  

^a Université du Québec à Montréal   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0141670644     PISSN: 01674544     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1015742709197     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (62)

1. Al Gini, My Job, My Self: Work and the Creation of the Modern Individual (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), p. 28.
2. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985).
3. Rodgers distinguishes two legacies, religious and secular, which informed nineteenth-century thinking about the value of work. Each is characterized by two main themes. Religious figures stressed that work served two purposes: it provided an antidote to idleness, and a means for workers to discharge their weighty moral responsibility to be productive members of society. In a second, secular view championed by Benjamin Franklin, Ralph Waldo Emerson and others, hard work was an outlet for two powerful individual energies: the will to achieve worldly success and the will to express artistic creativity. (Daniel T. Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920 [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, 8-14]). As Rodgers notes, the two legacies pulled in different directions, generating a tension. In his terse scholarly summary, "Work was a creative act and a means of self repression, a social obligation that paid off in private rewards. The ingredients of the work ethic were not held together by the logical consistency of their premises." (13)
4. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
5. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
6. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
7. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
8. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
9. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
10. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
11. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
12. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
13. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
14. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
15. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
16. Studs Terkel, Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (New York: Ballantine, 1985); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: the World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley: University of California, 1983); Barbara Garson, The Electronic Sweatshop: How Computers Are Transforming The Office of the Future into the Sweatshops of the Past (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Ben Hamper, Rivethead: Tales from the Assembly Line (New York: Warner, 1991); Michael Novak, Business as Calling: Work and the Examined Life (New York: Free, 1996); Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies (New York: Harper & Row, 1982); George F. Gilder, The Spirit of Enterprise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California, 1978; see especially 576-589; 729-732; 1148-1156); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1958); Daniel Bell, The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (New York: Basic, 1973); Rosabeth Moss Kanter, When Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenges of Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
17. Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closings, Community Abandonment, And the Dismantling of Basic Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982).
18. See, for example, Amanda Bennett, The Death of the Organization Man (New York: William Morrow, 1990). For a range of analysis and interpretation about the idea of the boundaryless career, see Michael B. Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau, The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle For a New Organizational Era (New York: Oxford, 1996).
19. See, for example, Amanda Bennett, The Death of the Organization Man (New York: William Morrow, 1990). For a range of analysis and interpretation about the idea of the boundaryless career, see Michael B. Arthur and Denise M. Rousseau, The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle For a New Organizational Era (New York: Oxford, 1996).
20. In legal terms, the basic elements include an offer, an acceptance, and a consideration (or the exchange of benefits).
21. For a revealing look at how managers spend their time, see Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).
22. Robin Leidner, Fast Food, Fast Talk: Service Work and the Routinization of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California, 1993), chapters 2 and 3.
23. Dante, The Inferno, tr. Robert Pinsky (New York: Noonday [Farrar, Straus and Giroux], 1994), canto VII.
24. For terse but trenchant accounts of the drive system, see David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, The State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (New York: Cambridge, 1987), pp. 115, 150-152; Sanford M. Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University, 1985), pp. 16-23, 279.
25. For terse but trenchant accounts of the drive system, see David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, The State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (New York: Cambridge, 1987), pp. 115, 150-152; Sanford M. Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University, 1985), pp. 16-23, 279.
26. See, for example, David Montgomery's magisterial history of the early labor movement: The Fall of the House of Labor: the Workplace, the State and American Labor, 1865-1925 (New York: Cambridge University, 1987).
27. In 1875, the social-gospel preacher Washington Gladden tried to bridge the antagonism between labor and management by arguing that the vocation of factory workers lay in willing hard work, while that of factory owners lay in treating them kindly. Gladden prescribed that both sides should grow into cooperation [Washington Gladden, Working People and Their Employers (Boston: Lockwood, Brooks, 1876), pp. 9-27, 45-46].
28. For a sampling from one year alone, see Eben Shapiro, "Brash as Ever, Turner is Giving Time Warner Dose of Culture Shock," (March 24, 1997, 1); Martha Brannigan and Joseph B. White, "Why Delta Airlines Decided It Was Time For CEO to Take Off," (May 30, 1997, 1); Chris Adams, "At Northstar Health, CEOs Come and Go, But Problems Endure," (June 20, 1997, 1); Stephen B. Frank, "How Rising Star Quit at American Express And Took Staff Along," (December 2, 1997, 1).
29. For a sampling from one year alone, see Eben Shapiro, "Brash as Ever, Turner is Giving Time Warner Dose of Culture Shock," (March 24, 1997, 1); Martha Brannigan and Joseph B. White, "Why Delta Airlines Decided It Was Time For CEO to Take Off," (May 30, 1997, 1); Chris Adams, "At Northstar Health, CEOs Come and Go, But Problems Endure," (June 20, 1997, 1); Stephen B. Frank, "How Rising Star Quit at American Express And Took Staff Along," (December 2, 1997, 1).
30. For a sampling from one year alone, see Eben Shapiro, "Brash as Ever, Turner is Giving Time Warner Dose of Culture Shock," (March 24, 1997, 1); Martha Brannigan and Joseph B. White, "Why Delta Airlines Decided It Was Time For CEO to Take Off," (May 30, 1997, 1); Chris Adams, "At Northstar Health, CEOs Come and Go, But Problems Endure," (June 20, 1997, 1); Stephen B. Frank, "How Rising Star Quit at American Express And Took Staff Along," (December 2, 1997, 1).
31. For a sampling from one year alone, see Eben Shapiro, "Brash as Ever, Turner is Giving Time Warner Dose of Culture Shock," (March 24, 1997, 1); Martha Brannigan and Joseph B. White, "Why Delta Airlines Decided It Was Time For CEO to Take Off," (May 30, 1997, 1); Chris Adams, "At Northstar Health, CEOs Come and Go, But Problems Endure," (June 20, 1997, 1); Stephen B. Frank, "How Rising Star Quit at American Express And Took Staff Along," (December 2, 1997, 1).
32. See James M. Childs, Jr., Greed: Economics and Ethics in Conflict (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2000), for the most recent argument that a sense of Christian calling is an antidote to greed.
33. Joseph A. Litterer, "Systematic Management: Design for Organizational Recoupling in American Manufacturing Firms," Business Historical Review 37 (1963), p. 370.
34. Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift; Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
35. See Edwin T. Layton, Jr., The Revolt of the Engineers; Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession [Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University, 1971], chapter 2, and Monte A. Calvert, The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910: Professional Cultures in Conflict [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1967], 276). The number of engineers increased from 7000 in 1880 to 136 000 in 1920, as the overall industrial workforce tripled from 2.7 million to 8.4 million (Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-century Factory System in the U.S., 2nd ed. [Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1995], p. 5.)
36. See Edwin T. Layton, Jr., The Revolt of the Engineers; Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession [Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University, 1971], chapter 2, and Monte A. Calvert, The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910: Professional Cultures in Conflict [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1967], 276). The number of engineers increased from 7000 in 1880 to 136 000 in 1920, as the overall industrial workforce tripled from 2.7 million to 8.4 million (Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-century Factory System in the U.S., 2nd ed. [Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1995], p. 5.)
37. See Edwin T. Layton, Jr., The Revolt of the Engineers; Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession [Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University, 1971], chapter 2, and Monte A. Calvert, The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910: Professional Cultures in Conflict [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1967], 276). The number of engineers increased from 7000 in 1880 to 136 000 in 1920, as the overall industrial workforce tripled from 2.7 million to 8.4 million (Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers: Origins of the Twentieth-century Factory System in the U.S., 2nd ed. [Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1995], p. 5.)
38. The charge that scientific management and mechanization degrade both work and workers was voiced most powerfully by the Marxist worker-scholar Harry Braverman. See Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, Monthly Review Press, 1974), chapter 4, for an incisive polemical interpretation of scientific management. The "Braverman thesis" set off debates in radical labor scholarship. The "deskilling" thesis has been hotly disputed; see Paul Adler, "Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism" (Berkeley Journal of Sociology 33, 1988), pp. 1-36. The terrain of the debate is mapped in Kenneth I. Spenner, "Deciphering Prometheus: Temporal Changes in the Skill Level of Work," (American Sociological Review 48 [December, 1983], pp. 824-837).
39. The charge that scientific management and mechanization degrade both work and workers was voiced most powerfully by the Marxist worker-scholar Harry Braverman. See Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, Monthly Review Press, 1974), chapter 4, for an incisive polemical interpretation of scientific management. The "Braverman thesis" set off debates in radical labor scholarship. The "deskilling" thesis has been hotly disputed; see Paul Adler, "Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism" (Berkeley Journal of Sociology 33, 1988), pp. 1-36. The terrain of the debate is mapped in Kenneth I. Spenner, "Deciphering Prometheus: Temporal Changes in the Skill Level of Work," (American Sociological Review 48 [December, 1983], pp. 824-837).
40. The charge that scientific management and mechanization degrade both work and workers was voiced most powerfully by the Marxist worker-scholar Harry Braverman. See Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, Monthly Review Press, 1974), chapter 4, for an incisive polemical interpretation of scientific management. The "Braverman thesis" set off debates in radical labor scholarship. The "deskilling" thesis has been hotly disputed; see Paul Adler, "Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism" (Berkeley Journal of Sociology 33, 1988), pp. 1-36. The terrain of the debate is mapped in Kenneth I. Spenner, "Deciphering Prometheus: Temporal Changes in the Skill Level of Work," (American Sociological Review 48 [December, 1983], pp. 824-837).
41. Frederick W. Taylor, "Testimony Before the Special House Committee", as found in Frederick W. Taylor, Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Bros., 1947), p. 209.
42. Milton J. Nadworny, Scientific Management and the Unions, 1900-1932: A Historical Analysis (Cambridge: Harvard, 1955), pp. 129-130.
43. Ibid., pp. 139-141.
44. Elton Mayo, The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (Boston: Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, 1933).
45. F. J. Roethlisberger and W. J. Dickson, Management and the Worker: An Account of a Research Program Conducted by the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago (Cambridge: Harvard, 1939), chapter 22, pp. 559-562.
46. Mayo, 181; Roethlisberger and Dickson, chapters 12 and 16, especially pp. 597-603.
47. See William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956).
48. Rensis Likert, The Human Organization: Its Management and Value (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 98-99; Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), pp. 36-39; Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization: The Conflict Between the System and the Individual (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), pp. 32-33, 49-53, 93-95, 197-200.
49. Rensis Likert, The Human Organization: Its Management and Value (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 98-99; Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), pp. 36-39; Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization: The Conflict Between the System and the Individual (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), pp. 32-33, 49-53, 93-95, 197-200.
50. Rensis Likert, The Human Organization: Its Management and Value (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 98-99; Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), pp. 36-39; Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization: The Conflict Between the System and the Individual (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), pp. 32-33, 49-53, 93-95, 197-200.
51. This argument was made most compellingly by Frederick Herzberg (Work and the Nature of Man [Cleveland: World, 1966]). See also McGregor, pp. 41-42, 98-99.
52. For a helpful summary of such research during the heyday of the human-potential movement, see E. A. Locke, "The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction", in M. D. Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1976).
53. An early objection was raised by Peter Drucker; see his classic The Practice of Management (Harper & Row, 1954), chapter 23.
54. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, tr. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), pp. 59-60, see also chapter 5; James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organization, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), pp. 196-197, Lyndall Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Brohers, 1943), chapter 4. Chester Barnard assumed much of this approach, but set it within a rich if labored theory about the nature of cooperation in large organizations, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard, 1938). Mary Parker Follett framed the work of executives within a Gestalt theory of human interactivity (Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett, ed. H. C. Metcalf and L. Urwick [New York: Harper & Row, 1940]).
55. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, tr. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), pp. 59-60, see also chapter 5; James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organization, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), pp. 196-197, Lyndall Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Brohers, 1943), chapter 4. Chester Barnard assumed much of this approach, but set it within a rich if labored theory about the nature of cooperation in large organizations, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard, 1938). Mary Parker Follett framed the work of executives within a Gestalt theory of human interactivity (Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett, ed. H. C. Metcalf and L. Urwick [New York: Harper & Row, 1940]).
56. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, tr. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), pp. 59-60, see also chapter 5; James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organization, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), pp. 196-197, Lyndall Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Brohers, 1943), chapter 4. Chester Barnard assumed much of this approach, but set it within a rich if labored theory about the nature of cooperation in large organizations, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard, 1938). Mary Parker Follett framed the work of executives within a Gestalt theory of human interactivity (Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett, ed. H. C. Metcalf and L. Urwick [New York: Harper & Row, 1940]).
57. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, tr. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), pp. 59-60, see also chapter 5; James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organization, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), pp. 196-197, Lyndall Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Brohers, 1943), chapter 4. Chester Barnard assumed much of this approach, but set it within a rich if labored theory about the nature of cooperation in large organizations, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard, 1938). Mary Parker Follett framed the work of executives within a Gestalt theory of human interactivity (Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett, ed. H. C. Metcalf and L. Urwick [New York: Harper & Row, 1940]).
58. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management, tr. Constance Storrs (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), pp. 59-60, see also chapter 5; James D. Mooney, The Principles of Organization, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), pp. 196-197, Lyndall Urwick, The Elements of Administration (New York: Harper & Brohers, 1943), chapter 4. Chester Barnard assumed much of this approach, but set it within a rich if labored theory about the nature of cooperation in large organizations, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard, 1938). Mary Parker Follett framed the work of executives within a Gestalt theory of human interactivity (Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett, ed. H. C. Metcalf and L. Urwick [New York: Harper & Row, 1940]).
59. Barnard, p. 269.
60. For a fuller description of this ideology, and its blemishes, see Stewart W. Herman, Durable Goods: A Covenantal Ethic for Management and Employees (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1997), chapter 2.
61. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, tr. Georges Simpson (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1947), pp. 398-406.
62. Vonnegut, Kurt. Player Piano (New York: Delacorte, 1952).