Resistance and the Social History of Africa

Journal of Social History

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2003, Pages

  Allina Pisano, Eric ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0141652972     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0122     Document Type: Review

References (61)

1. A(rquivo) H(istórico) de M(oçambique), C(ompanhia) d(e) M(oçambique)/ A(ssociação) de T(rabalho) I(ndígena)/C(orrespondência) E(xpedida)/Caixa 1: Director Gerente to Chefe Chemba, no. CL/333 of 2 Abril 1927; Direcção to Chefe Chemba [telegram], 6 Abril 1927.
2. AHM, CdM/S(ecretaria) G(eral)/Processos/Caixa 71: Chefe de Sub-circumscripção de Sanca to Chefe de Sena, No. 110 of 1909, 30 September 1909, SGP/0130/39.
3. For more complete accounts of forced labor recruitment in Portuguese Africa, see James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, 1959); Gerald J. Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality (Berkeley, 1978); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983); Jeanne Marie Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877-1962 (Portsmouth, UK, 1995).
4. For more complete accounts of forced labor recruitment in Portuguese Africa, see James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, 1959); Gerald J. Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality (Berkeley, 1978); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983); Jeanne Marie Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877-1962 (Portsmouth, UK, 1995).
5. For more complete accounts of forced labor recruitment in Portuguese Africa, see James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, 1959); Gerald J. Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality (Berkeley, 1978); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983); Jeanne Marie Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877-1962 (Portsmouth, UK, 1995).
6. For more complete accounts of forced labor recruitment in Portuguese Africa, see James Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, 1959); Gerald J. Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality (Berkeley, 1978); Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, CO, 1983); Jeanne Marie Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877-1962 (Portsmouth, UK, 1995).
7. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 1: Director Gerente to Director Negócios Indígenas, no. CL/110 of 26 Dezembro 1926.
8. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 1: Chefe Chemba to Recrutamento Beira, n.d.
9. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 1: Director Gerente to Chefe Chemba, no. CL/388 of 16 Abril 1927; Director Gerente to Director Negócios Indígenas, no. CL/393 of 18 Abril 1927; CdM/ATI/Dossies/Caixa 36: ATIMS, Macequece 1927; Sub-agente Macequece to Director Gerente, D/186 of 13 Junho 1927.
10. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 1: Director Gerente to Director Negócios Indígenas, no. CL/393 of 18 Abril 1927; CdM/ATI/Dossies/Caixa 27: ATIMS, Correspondência Confidencial, 1927 à1929, Agente Vila Pery to Director Gerente, no. DG/154 of 25 Maio 1927; CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 2: Director Gerente to Agente Vila Pery, no. CL/596 of 3 Junho 1927.
11. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 2: Director Gerente to Director Negócios Indígenas, no. CL/775 of 18 Julho 1927; Director Gerente to Agente Vila Pery, no. CL/596 of 3 Junho 1927.
12. Especially because those same authorities often directed forced recruitment for the state itself.
13. Perhaps the most oft-cited work is Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974).
14. This is a vast body of literature. I have not attempted to produce a bibliographic essay but rather an interpretive overview. Those interested in consulting the literature on resistance in African history would do well to begin with Allen Isaacman's essay, "Peasants and Rural Social Protest in Africa," in Confronting Historical Paradigms: Peasants, Labor, and the Capitalist World System in Africa and Latin America, edited by Frederick Cooper, Allen F. Isaacman, Florencia E. Mallon, William Roseberry, and Steve J. Stern (Madison, 1993), 205-317. For a review of recent contributions to this field, see Klaas van Walraven and Jon Abbink, "Rethinking Resistance in African History: An Introduction," in Jon Abbink, Mirjam de Bruijn, and Klaas van Walraven, eds., Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History (Leiden, 2003), 1-40.
15. This is a vast body of literature. I have not attempted to produce a bibliographic essay but rather an interpretive overview. Those interested in consulting the literature on resistance in African history would do well to begin with Allen Isaacman's essay, "Peasants and Rural Social Protest in Africa," in Confronting Historical Paradigms: Peasants, Labor, and the Capitalist World System in Africa and Latin America, edited by Frederick Cooper, Allen F. Isaacman, Florencia E. Mallon, William Roseberry, and Steve J. Stern (Madison, 1993), 205-317. For a review of recent contributions to this field, see Klaas van Walraven and Jon Abbink, "Rethinking Resistance in African History: An Introduction," in Jon Abbink, Mirjam de Bruijn, and Klaas van Walraven, eds., Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History (Leiden, 2003), 1-40.
16. The classic work in this vein is Terence O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, 1896-7 (London, 1967).
17. Crawford Young reviews this literature in "Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Class in Africa: A Retrospective," Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 103 (1986): 421-495. Terence Ranger's 1977 essay is in part an auto-critique, "The People in African Resistance: A Review," Journal of Southern African Studies 4, no. 1 (1977): 125-146.
18. Crawford Young reviews this literature in "Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Class in Africa: A Retrospective," Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 103 (1986): 421-495. Terence Ranger's 1977 essay is in part an auto-critique, "The People in African Resistance: A Review," Journal of Southern African Studies 4, no. 1 (1977): 125-146.
19. See in particular Ranger, "The People in African Resistance," and Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, "Resistance and Collaboration in Southern and Central Africa, c. 1850-1920, " International Journal of African Historical Studies 10, no. 1 (1977): 31-62.
20. See in particular Ranger, "The People in African Resistance," and Allen Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, "Resistance and Collaboration in Southern and Central Africa, c. 1850-1920, " International Journal of African Historical Studies 10, no. 1 (1977): 31-62.
21. Frederick Cooper, "Peasants, Capitalists, and Historians: A Review Article," Journal of Southern African Studies 7, no. 2 (1981): 284-314; Jack Lewis, "The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry: A Critique and Reassessment" Journal of Southern African Studies 11, no. 1 (1984): 1-24.
22. Frederick Cooper, "Peasants, Capitalists, and Historians: A Review Article," Journal of Southern African Studies 7, no. 2 (1981): 284-314; Jack Lewis, "The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry: A Critique and Reassessment" Journal of Southern African Studies 11, no. 1 (1984): 1-24.
23. Ranger, "The People in African Resistance," 142.
24. Sherry B. Ortner, "Resistance and the Problem of Ethnographic Refusal," Comparative Studies in Society and History 27, no. 1 (1995): 179.
25. Other factors that moved scholarship beyond marxist approaches include the collapse of the Soviet Union, after which materialist analyses lost some appeal.
26. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
27. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
28. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
29. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
30. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
31. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
32. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
33. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism; Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives : Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1992); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, 1995). Paul S. Landau, The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom (Portsmouth, 1995); Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996); Raymond E. Dumett, El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900 (Athens, 1998); Benedict Carton, Blood from Your Children: The Colonial Origins of Generational Conflict in South Africa (Charlottesville, 2000); David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880-1920 (Athens, 2000).
34. Scholarship on the use of oral historical material has a long history itself; see Joseph C. Miller, ed., The African Past Speaks: Essays on Oral Tradition and History (Folkstone, 1980); Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (Madison, 1985); Luise White, Stephen F. Miescher, and David William Cohen, eds., African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2001).
35. Scholarship on the use of oral historical material has a long history itself; see Joseph C. Miller, ed., The African Past Speaks: Essays on Oral Tradition and History (Folkstone, 1980); Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (Madison, 1985); Luise White, Stephen F. Miescher, and David William Cohen, eds., African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2001).
36. Scholarship on the use of oral historical material has a long history itself; see Joseph C. Miller, ed., The African Past Speaks: Essays on Oral Tradition and History (Folkstone, 1980); Jan Vansina, Oral Tradition as History (Madison, 1985); Luise White, Stephen F. Miescher, and David William Cohen, eds., African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2001).
37. The contemporary uses of these events and their place in collective memory are especially evident in "Pompa nas celebrações da revolta de Báruè: Cabrito para sacrifício ao Makombe foge numa cerimónia em que política se misturou com a tradiçao," [Pageantry in the commemoration of the Báruè revolt: Goat destined for sacrifice to Makombe escapes in a ceremony in which politics is mixed with tradition] Notícias, 4 de Abril de 1997.
38. Shula Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-08 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970); Carton, Blood from Your Children.
39. Shula Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906-08 Disturbances in Natal (Oxford, 1970); Carton, Blood from Your Children.
40. In the mid-1990s, cotton cultivators in northern Mozambique embarked on a sellers' strike in protest over low prices, which provoked the company that held a purchasing monopoly in the area to complain to the district administrator. The growers then found themselves facing armed soldiers as they were told they must sell their cotton at the price dictated by the company. Personal communication, Anne Pitcher.
41. Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty, 17-18.
42. The ability to communicate directly with subjects in their own language is key in this trend. Many scholars based in Africa speak local languages. For many scholars outside the continent, financial support for language study has been crucial, as has the backing of the generation of scholars who have helped mainstream the use of oral testimony since the 1970s.
43. The results have dominated the field. Since 1990, the Herskovits Prize, awarded annually for the best scholarly work on Africa in English distributed in the United States, has gone to seven historians. Five of the seven make extensive use of oral testimony in their works. A major force in publishing this body of work is Heinemann's Social History of Africa series, and at least one reviewer has noted that oral testimony has become a "hallmark" of the series. James Brennan, H-Africa review of Making Ethnic Ways: Communities and Their Transformations in Taita, Kenya, 1800-1950 (Portsmouth, 1999), by Bill Bravman, archived at http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&.list=hafrica&month= 9910&week=b&msg=qfbwlR7jCCBBEmFyGThp8A&user=&pw=
44. See especially Glassman's Feasts and Riot; Paul S. Landau, "Hegemony and History in Jean and John Comaroff's Of Revelation and Revolution, "Africa 70, no. 3 (2000): 501-519.
45. See especially Glassman's Feasts and Riot; Paul S. Landau, "Hegemony and History in Jean and John Comaroff's Of Revelation and Revolution, "Africa 70, no. 3 (2000): 501-519.
46. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 2: Director Gerente to Director DNI, no. CL/851 of 9 Agosto 1927; CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 2: Director Gerente to Governador, no. 913 of 30 Agosto 1927.
47. Such slander was part of a colonial mantra in Africa. For a small number of references in central Mozambique, see AHM, CdM/SG/Relatórios/Caixa 241: Circunscrição de Manica, Relatório do Arrolamento de Palhotas e Recenseamento da População Indígena, 1928, SGR/5104/01, 16; CdM/SG/Correspondência/Caixa 179: Secretaria Geral, Circulares 1927, Circular 118 of 3 Novembre 1927; AHM, CdM/ATI/Dossies/Caixa 36: ATIMS, Macequece, 1927; Sub-Agente Macequece to Director Gerente, no. D/208 of 8 Julho 1927.
48. AHM, CdM/ATI/CE/Caixa 2: Director Gerente to Director DNI, no. CL/775 of 18 Julho 1927.
49. Elizabeth Eldredge argues that the periodic absence of male labor was a feature of pre-colonial Lesotho's political economy and that women had long assumed the greater part of work involved with agricultural expansion. Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom: The pursuit of security in nineteenth-century Lesotho (Cambridge, 1993), 10. Allen and Barbara Isaacman have shown how pre-colonial pawning practices reflected local attitudes about whose labor was most expendable. Barbara Isaacman and Allen Isaacman, "Slavery and Social Stratification among the Sena of Mozambique: A Study of the Kaporo System," in Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, 1977), 109.
50. Elizabeth Eldredge argues that the periodic absence of male labor was a feature of pre-colonial Lesotho's political economy and that women had long assumed the greater part of work involved with agricultural expansion. Elizabeth A. Eldredge, A South African Kingdom: The pursuit of security in nineteenth-century Lesotho (Cambridge, 1993), 10. Allen and Barbara Isaacman have shown how pre-colonial pawning practices reflected local attitudes about whose labor was most expendable. Barbara Isaacman and Allen Isaacman, "Slavery and Social Stratification among the Sena of Mozambique: A Study of the Kaporo System," in Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, 1977), 109.
51. Cooper, "Conflict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History," American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (1994): 1530, 1533.
52. Leroy Vail and Landeg White, "Forms of Resistance: Songs and Perceptions of Power in Colonial Mozambique" American Historical Review 88, no. 4 (1983): 886.
53. Cooper, "Conflict and Connection," 1533.
54. Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey (Madison, 1999), 128.
55. I owe this range of ways that people exercise power to Cooper, "Conflict and Connection," 1517.
56. Vail and White, "Forms of Resistance," 886.
57. Ortner, "Resistance and the Problem of Ethnographic Refusal," 177.
58. Ibid, 175.
59. Some readers might remark that the case of the Chemba recruits described in this essay appears to rely solely on documentary evidence. Two comments are in order. First, my reading of this evidence depends vitally on interviews I conducted from 1995 to 1998 with over one-hundred residents in central Mozambique. Second, the documentary evidence that describes the flight of the Chemba recruits is unusual in its completeness. Moreover, it is one of the infrequent instances when we have a clear view of the fissures within the community of colonial policy makers and practitioners. These fissures were always there but rarely visible. Ann Laura Stoler explores the importance of such fissures and of recognizing that categories such as the "colonial state" were historically shifting ones full of tension and contradictions. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31, no. 1 (1989): 134-161.
60. Vail and White, "Forms of Resistance," 919.
61. Leroy Vail and Landeg White, Power and the Praise Poem: Southern African Voices in History (Charlottesville, 1991), 324.