Representative bureaucracy, tokenism and the glass ceiling: The case of women in Quebec municipal administration

Canadian Public Administration

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 457-480

  Gidengil, Elisabeth ^a   Vengroff, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0141560127     PISSN: 00084840     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1754-7121.1997.tb01519.x     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. We say at a minimum, because a descriptively representative bureaucracy is not sufficient in itself to ensure responsiveness. See Kenneth John Meier, "Representative Bureaucracy: An Empirical Analysis," American Political Science Review 69, no. 2 (June 1975), pp. 526-42.
2. Rita Mae Kelly, Mary Guy, Jane Bayes, Georgia Duerst-Lahti, Lois Duke, Mary Hale, Cathy Johnson, Amal Kawar, and Jeanie Stanley, "Public Managers in the States: A Comparison of Career Advancement by Sex," Public Administration Review 51, no. 5 (September/October 1991), p. 411.
3. Katherine Naff, "Through the Glass Ceiling: Prospects for the Advancement of Women in the Federal Civil Service," Public Administration Review 54, no. 6 (November/December 1994), p. 507. Also see Katherine Naff and Sue Thomas, "The Glass Ceiling Revisited: Determinants of Federal Job Advancement," Policy Studies Review 13, nos. 3-4 (Autumn/Winter 1994), pp. 249-72. A similar phenomenon has been noted at the state level. See Mary E. Guy, "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Backward: The Status of Women's Integration into Public Management," Public Administration Review 53, no. 4 (July/August 1993), pp. 285-92. Also Kelly et al., "Public Managers in the States," Public Administration Review.
4. Katherine Naff, "Through the Glass Ceiling: Prospects for the Advancement of Women in the Federal Civil Service," Public Administration Review 54, no. 6 (November/December 1994), p. 507. Also see Katherine Naff and Sue Thomas, "The Glass Ceiling Revisited: Determinants of Federal Job Advancement," Policy Studies Review 13, nos. 3-4 (Autumn/Winter 1994), pp. 249-72. A similar phenomenon has been noted at the state level. See Mary E. Guy, "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Backward: The Status of Women's Integration into Public Management," Public Administration Review 53, no. 4 (July/August 1993), pp. 285-92. Also Kelly et al., "Public Managers in the States," Public Administration Review.
5. Katherine Naff, "Through the Glass Ceiling: Prospects for the Advancement of Women in the Federal Civil Service," Public Administration Review 54, no. 6 (November/December 1994), p. 507. Also see Katherine Naff and Sue Thomas, "The Glass Ceiling Revisited: Determinants of Federal Job Advancement," Policy Studies Review 13, nos. 3-4 (Autumn/Winter 1994), pp. 249-72. A similar phenomenon has been noted at the state level. See Mary E. Guy, "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Backward: The Status of Women's Integration into Public Management," Public Administration Review 53, no. 4 (July/August 1993), pp. 285-92. Also Kelly et al., "Public Managers in the States," Public Administration Review.
6. Katherine Naff, "Through the Glass Ceiling: Prospects for the Advancement of Women in the Federal Civil Service," Public Administration Review 54, no. 6 (November/December 1994), p. 507. Also see Katherine Naff and Sue Thomas, "The Glass Ceiling Revisited: Determinants of Federal Job Advancement," Policy Studies Review 13, nos. 3-4 (Autumn/Winter 1994), pp. 249-72. A similar phenomenon has been noted at the state level. See Mary E. Guy, "Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Backward: The Status of Women's Integration into Public Management," Public Administration Review 53, no. 4 (July/August 1993), pp. 285-92. Also Kelly et al., "Public Managers in the States," Public Administration Review.
7. Jeff Sallot, "Young Lose Jobs in Public Service," The Globe and Mail (Toronto) 3 August 1996, p. A5. See also Heather MacIvor, Women and Politics in Canada (Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press, 1996), p. 285.
8. Jeff Sallot, "Young Lose Jobs in Public Service," The Globe and Mail (Toronto) 3 August 1996, p. A5. See also Heather MacIvor, Women and Politics in Canada (Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press, 1996), p. 285.
9. Naff and Thomas, "The Glass Ceiling Revisited," Policy Studies Review, 251.
10. Angela S. Bullard and Deil S. Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments," Public Administration Review 53, no. 3 (May/June 1993), p. 189.
11. The jury is still out, however, on whether the reality of local government actually has been receptive to women's concerns. See, for example, Caroline Andrew, "Getting Women's Issues on the Municipal Agenda: Violence Against Women," in Judith Garber and Robyne Turner, eds., Gender in Urban Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1995), pp. 99-118.
12. See, for example, Samuel Krislov, Representative Bureaucracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971); and Meier, "Representative Bureaucracy," American Political Science Review.
13. See, for example, Samuel Krislov, Representative Bureaucracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971); and Meier, "Representative Bureaucracy," American Political Science Review.
14. See Meier, "Representative Bureaucracy," American Political Science Review.
15. See, for example, Lyse Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité (mai 1994), pp. 19-21; Lyse Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1994); and Quebec, Groupe de travail des programmes d'accès à l'égalité, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes d'Accès à l'Égalité dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec: Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1990). Also see Chantal Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique (Montreal: Éditions St. Martin, 1990); and Evelyne Tardy, La politique: un monde d'hommes? (Montreal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982).
16. See, for example, Lyse Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité (mai 1994), pp. 19-21; Lyse Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1994); and Quebec, Groupe de travail des programmes d'accès à l'égalité, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes d'Accès à l'Égalité dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec: Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1990). Also see Chantal Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique (Montreal: Éditions St. Martin, 1990); and Evelyne Tardy, La politique: un monde d'hommes? (Montreal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982).
17. See, for example, Lyse Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité (mai 1994), pp. 19-21; Lyse Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1994); and Quebec, Groupe de travail des programmes d'accès à l'égalité, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes d'Accès à l'Égalité dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec: Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1990). Also see Chantal Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique (Montreal: Éditions St. Martin, 1990); and Evelyne Tardy, La politique: un monde d'hommes? (Montreal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982).
18. See, for example, Lyse Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité (mai 1994), pp. 19-21; Lyse Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1994); and Quebec, Groupe de travail des programmes d'accès à l'égalité, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes d'Accès à l'Égalité dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec: Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1990). Also see Chantal Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique (Montreal: Éditions St. Martin, 1990); and Evelyne Tardy, La politique: un monde d'hommes? (Montreal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982).
19. See, for example, Lyse Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité (mai 1994), pp. 19-21; Lyse Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1994); and Quebec, Groupe de travail des programmes d'accès à l'égalité, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes d'Accès à l'Égalité dans le Milieu Municipal (Quebec: Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 1990). Also see Chantal Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique (Montreal: Éditions St. Martin, 1990); and Evelyne Tardy, La politique: un monde d'hommes? (Montreal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982).
20. For example, Lucien Bouchard recently named five women as deputy ministers, raising to thirty-three per cent (eight of twenty-four) the representation of women in these top provincial government posts. The Quebec Ministry of Municipal Affairs has had several programs designed to increase the representation of women at the municipal level. See Groupe de travail, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes.
21. Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité; and Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes.
22. Pelletier, "L'Emploi dans le Milieu Municipal," Municipalité; and Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes.
23. Despite the significant growth, women were still only twenty-three per cent of the total permanent employees in these cities (twenty-six per cent, when all Quebec municipalities, regardless of size and urban-rural status are considered), and women still constituted only about twenty-two per cent of employees in the cadre and professional categories.
24. Caroline Andrew, "Recasting Political Analysis for Canadian Cities," in Vered Amit-Talai and Henry Lustinger-Thaler, eds., Urban Lives (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1994), p. 97.
25. The information in this paragraph comes from Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1996). The remaining 1,174 rural municipalities tend to be relatively small (in terms of population) rural parishes, villages, cantons or, in a few cases, parts of the territories of First Nations such as the Inuit or Cree. Governed by "le Code Municipal," these municipalities have a distinct administrative organization, far fewer employees, and are qualitatively different.
26. Data were collected on all urban municipalities. The ns reported throughout this study vary slightly because of missing data.
27. The information came from Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996; and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1995 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1995); Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1990 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1990); and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1985 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1985).
28. The information came from Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996; and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1995 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1995); Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1990 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1990); and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1985 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1985).
29. The information came from Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996; and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1995 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1995); Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1990 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1990); and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1985 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1985).
30. The information came from Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996; and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1995 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1995); Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1990 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1990); and Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1985 (Ste-Foy: Les Publications du Québec, 1985).
31. Robert Darcy, Susan Welch and Janet Clark, Women, Elections and Representation, 2nd edition (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), chapter 5.
32. Appointment of women to head newly created departments has been shown to be an effective way for women to circumvent but not break the glass ceiling. Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, p. 199.
33. Nelson Dometrius and Lee Sigelman, "Assessing Progress Toward Affirmative Action Goals in State and Local Government: A New Benchmark," Public Administration Review 44, no. 3 (May/June 1984), pp. 241-6.
34. These data were calculated from Statistics Canada, 1991 Census of Canada, Profile of Census Divisions and Subdivisions in Québec (Ottawa: Industry, Science and Technology Canada, 1994), Part B, v.1 and v.2.
35. Dometrius and Sigelman "Assessing Progress Toward Affirmative Action," Public Administration Review, p. 245.
36. See Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, p. 191.
37. Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes, Tableau 1. These figures are considerably higher for municipalities with populations under 5,000.
38. Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, p. 289.
39. See Lynn Zimmer, "Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory," Social Problems 35, no. 1 (February 1988), pp. 64-77; and Gary Powell, Women and Men in Management (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1993), pp. 111-15.
40. See Lynn Zimmer, "Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory," Social Problems 35, no. 1 (February 1988), pp. 64-77; and Gary Powell, Women and Men in Management (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1993), pp. 111-15.
41. The very largest, Montreal, has twenty-three departments.
42. See Nicholas O. Alozie and Lynne L. Manganaro, "Women's Council Representation: Measurement Implications for Public Policy," Political Research Quarterly 46, no. 2 (June 1993), pp. 383-98.
43. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women," American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 5 (March 1977), pp. 965-90. See also Powell, Women and Men in Management, pp. 111-15; and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, pp. 288-9.
44. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women," American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 5 (March 1977), pp. 965-90. See also Powell, Women and Men in Management, pp. 111-15; and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, pp. 288-9.
45. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women," American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 5 (March 1977), pp. 965-90. See also Powell, Women and Men in Management, pp. 111-15; and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, pp. 288-9.
46. Powell, Women and Men in Management, p. Ill, also uses this ratio as the dividing line between "tilted" and "balanced" groups.
47. Kanter, "Some Effects," American Journal of Sociology, p. 966. The use of numeric imbalance as a criterion should not be taken to mean that lack of numbers is at the root of tokenism. The deeper causes lie in societal and organizational sexism. See Janice D. Yoder, "Rethinking Tokenism: Looking Beyond Numbers," Gender and Society 5, no. 1 (March 1991), pp. 178-92.
48. Kanter, "Some Effects," American Journal of Sociology, p. 966. The use of numeric imbalance as a criterion should not be taken to mean that lack of numbers is at the root of tokenism. The deeper causes lie in societal and organizational sexism. See Janice D. Yoder, "Rethinking Tokenism: Looking Beyond Numbers," Gender and Society 5, no. 1 (March 1991), pp. 178-92.
49. These population categories were used because the Ministry of Municipal Affairs specifically singles out cities of 2,000 population and below, and 20,000 and above for political and administrative purposes. The two intermediate categories roughly correspond to categories used by the ministry in grouping data.
50. Elizabeth Vallance, "Where Power is, Women are Not," Parliamentary Affairs 35, no. 2 (Spring 1982), pp. 218-19. For a comparison, see Darcy, et al., Women, Elections and Representation.
51. Elizabeth Vallance, "Where Power is, Women are Not," Parliamentary Affairs 35, no. 2 (Spring 1982), pp. 218-19. For a comparison, see Darcy, et al., Women, Elections and Representation.
52. Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, pp. 191-2, have grouped state agencies into five categories based on the dominance of the executive ranks by men. See also Nelson Dometrius, "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders," Social Science Quarterly 65, no. 1 (March 1984); and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, p. 287.
53. Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, pp. 191-2, have grouped state agencies into five categories based on the dominance of the executive ranks by men. See also Nelson Dometrius, "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders," Social Science Quarterly 65, no. 1 (March 1984); and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, p. 287.
54. Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, pp. 191-2, have grouped state agencies into five categories based on the dominance of the executive ranks by men. See also Nelson Dometrius, "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders," Social Science Quarterly 65, no. 1 (March 1984); and Guy, "Three Steps Forward," Public Administration Review, p. 287.
55. Rebecca Warner, Brent Steel and Nicholas Lovrich, "Conditions Associated with the Advent of Representative Bureaucracy: The Case of Women in Policing," Social Science Quarterly 70, no. 3 (September 1989), p. 563. Even a strong affirmative-action program in a set of pilot cities in Quebec produced virtually no results in the hiring of women in fire departments and only marginal success in police departments. Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes, Tableau 4.
56. Rebecca Warner, Brent Steel and Nicholas Lovrich, "Conditions Associated with the Advent of Representative Bureaucracy: The Case of Women in Policing," Social Science Quarterly 70, no. 3 (September 1989), p. 563. Even a strong affirmative-action program in a set of pilot cities in Quebec produced virtually no results in the hiring of women in fire departments and only marginal success in police departments. Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes, Tableau 4.
57. Pelletier, La situation de l'Emploi des Femmes, Tableau 2.
58. Ibid.
59. Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Répertoire des Municipalités du Québec 1996, pp. 20-1 and 214.
60. Bullard and Wright, "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling," Public Administration Review, p. 192, found the position of treasurer in U.S. state governments to fit into their most integrated group of agencies, those with "significant female presence."
61. Ibid., p. 199.
62. Montreal named its first woman as secretary general in 1995. However, her title was changed from secrétaire générale to secrétaire administratif (she uses the masculine form so as not to be confused with the clerical secretaries), and the position was downgraded in the sense that the other department-heads have equal status and do not directly report to her. She instead serves as a coordinator.
63. Groupe de travail, Rapport d'Évaluation des Programmes, p. 28.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.; and Pelletier, La Situation de l'Emploi des Femmes.
66. The analysis was re-run using a binary dependent variable to indicate the presence/absence of women department-head(s). The pattern of effects was the same.
67. Grace Hall Saltzstein, "Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs," American Journal of Political Science 30, no. 1 (February 1986), p. 156. When the 1985-95 period is substituted in the analysis, increase in the number of department-heads has even less impact.
68. Ibid.; and Susan Welch, Albert K. Karnig and Richard A. Eribes, "Correlates of Women's Employment in Local Governments," Urban Affairs Quarterly 18, no. 2 (June 1983), pp. 551-64.
69. Ibid.; and Susan Welch, Albert K. Karnig and Richard A. Eribes, "Correlates of Women's Employment in Local Governments," Urban Affairs Quarterly 18, no. 2 (June 1983), pp. 551-64.
70. Compare this to Welch et al., "Correlates of Women's Employment," Urban Affairs Quarterly.
71. See Salzstein, "Female Mayors," American Journal of Political Science.
72. Given the presence of a few very large cities along with many more smaller ones, population size was logged to minimize the effects of skewness. (Cf. Welch et al., "Correlates of Women's Employment," Urban Affairs Quarterly.
73. See Lee Sigelman, "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government," Social Science Quarterly 56, no. 4 (March 1976), pp. 591-604; and also, Welch et al., "Correlates of Women's Employment," Urban Affairs Quarterly.
74. See Lee Sigelman, "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government," Social Science Quarterly 56, no. 4 (March 1976), pp. 591-604; and also, Welch et al., "Correlates of Women's Employment," Urban Affairs Quarterly.
75. See Darcy et al., Women, Elections and Representation; and Vallance, "Where Power is, Women Are Not," Parliamentary Affairs.
76. See Darcy et al., Women, Elections and Representation; and Vallance, "Where Power is, Women Are Not," Parliamentary Affairs.
77. Sigelman, "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government," Social Science Quarterly.
78. Ibid., p. 604.
79. Compare this with Salzstein, "Female Mayors," American Journal of Political Science.
80. Ibid.
81. Welch et al., "Correlates of Women's Employment," Urban Affairs Quarterly.
82. There is also no support for what Kenneth J. Meier and Kevin B. Smith term the "bottom-up model." The presence of more women in the top jobs in local government administration does not seem to promote greater elected representation for women. Indeed, if anything, cities that had more women department-heads in 1985 had fewer women councillors in 1995. Kenneth J. Meier and Kevin B. Smith, "Representative Democracy and Representative Bureaucracy: Examining the Top-Down and Bottom-Up Linkages," Social Science Quarterly 75, no. 4 (December 1994), pp. 790-803.
83. In Quebec, municipal political parties can only exist in cities with a population of 20,000 or more. See Louise Quesnel and Serge Belley, Partis Politiques Municipaux (Montreal: Éditions Agence d'Arc, 1991).
84. On the differences between le Parti Civique and the RCM in the 1970s and 1980s in their interest in advancing women's representation, see Maillé, Les Québécoises et la Conquête du Pouvoir Politique.
85. See Manon Tremblay, "Quebec Women in Politics: An Examination of the Research," in Jane Arscott and Linda Trimble, eds., In the Presence of Women: Representation in Canadian Governments (Toronto: Harcourt Brace & Company Canada, 1997), pp. 228-51.
86. Lyse Pelletier, "Les Femmes et la Prise de Décision au Niveau Municipal et Régional." Paper presented at the colloquium of the Association féminine d'éducation et d'action sociale, Québec, 7-8 April 1995.
87. See Elisabeth Gidengil and Richard Vengroff, "Representational Gains or Token Growth? The Case of Women in Quebec Municipal Politics," Canadian Journal of Political Science, forthcoming.