Philanthropy and diplomacy in the "American Century"

Diplomatic History

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 393-419

  Berghahn, Volker R ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0043284524     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/0145-2096.00174     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. For a discussion see Volker R. Berghahn and Charles S. Maier, "Modern Europe in American Historical Writing," in Imagined Histories, ed. Anthony Molho and Gordon Wood (Princeton, 1998), 393-414.
2. A good recent example of the latter approach focusing on the 1920s is Mary Nolan, Visions of Modernity (New York), 1994.
3. On Taylorism see, for example, Richard Kanigel, The One Best Way (New York, 1997); and Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift (Chicago, 1964).
4. On Taylorism see, for example, Richard Kanigel, The One Best Way (New York, 1997); and Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift (Chicago, 1964).
5. See Volker R. Berghahn, The Americanization of West German Industry, 1945-1973 (New York 1986).
6. Quoted in Lothar Burchardt, "Technischer Fortschritt und sozialer Wandel" [Technological progress and social change], in Deutsche Technikgeschichte, ed. Wilhelm Treue (Götingen, 1977),
7. Quoted in Anita Kugler, "Von der Werkstatt zum Fliessband" [From workshop to assembly line], in Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 13 (1987): 315.
8. Ibid., 316.
9. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (London, 1910). The book was first translated into English in 1896. The seventh impression appeared in 1910.
10. Rob Kroes, If You've Seen One, You've Seen the Mall: Europeans and American Mass Culture (Amsterdam, 1996).
11. See Henry Luce, "The American Century," in the previous issue.
12. Among the more recent contributions see, for example, Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993); Richard H. Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York, 1997); Reiner Pommerin, ed., The American Impact on Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1994); and David W. Ellwood and Rob Kroes, eds., Hollywood in Europe: Experiences of a Cultural Hegemony (Amsterdam, 1994).
13. Among the more recent contributions see, for example, Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993); Richard H. Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York, 1997); Reiner Pommerin, ed., The American Impact on Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1994); and David W. Ellwood and Rob Kroes, eds., Hollywood in Europe: Experiences of a Cultural Hegemony (Amsterdam, 1994).
14. Among the more recent contributions see, for example, Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993); Richard H. Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York, 1997); Reiner Pommerin, ed., The American Impact on Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1994); and David W. Ellwood and Rob Kroes, eds., Hollywood in Europe: Experiences of a Cultural Hegemony (Amsterdam, 1994).
15. Among the more recent contributions see, for example, Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993); Richard H. Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York, 1997); Reiner Pommerin, ed., The American Impact on Postwar Germany (Oxford, 1994); and David W. Ellwood and Rob Kroes, eds., Hollywood in Europe: Experiences of a Cultural Hegemony (Amsterdam, 1994).
16. See Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad: A History (New Brunswick, 1963), 41ff.; and Bernard Karl, "Philanthropy, Policy Planning, and the Bureaucratization of the Democratic Ideal," Daedalus 105 (Fall 1976): 106.
17. See Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad: A History (New Brunswick, 1963), 41ff.; and Bernard Karl, "Philanthropy, Policy Planning, and the Bureaucratization of the Democratic Ideal," Daedalus 105 (Fall 1976): 106.
18. See Curti, Philanthropy, 219.
19. Norman Angell, The Great Illusion (London, 1910).
20. Translation of the German original in Joseph A. Schumpeter, Imperialism (Oxford, 1951).
21. See, for example, Katherine D. McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy and Culture: The International Foundation Perspective (Philadelphia, 1984); Robert A. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago, 1988); Robert A. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York, 1952); and A. J. Zurcher, The Management of American Foundations: Administration, Policies, and Social Role (New York, 1972).
22. See, for example, Katherine D. McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy and Culture: The International Foundation Perspective (Philadelphia, 1984); Robert A. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago, 1988); Robert A. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York, 1952); and A. J. Zurcher, The Management of American Foundations: Administration, Policies, and Social Role (New York, 1972).
23. See, for example, Katherine D. McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy and Culture: The International Foundation Perspective (Philadelphia, 1984); Robert A. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago, 1988); Robert A. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York, 1952); and A. J. Zurcher, The Management of American Foundations: Administration, Policies, and Social Role (New York, 1972).
24. See, for example, Katherine D. McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy and Culture: The International Foundation Perspective (Philadelphia, 1984); Robert A. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago, 1988); Robert A. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York, 1952); and A. J. Zurcher, The Management of American Foundations: Administration, Policies, and Social Role (New York, 1972).
25. See Curti, Philanthropy, 303f.
26. Ibid., 410.
27. Quoted in McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy, 65-81. See also Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York, 1972), esp. 379ff.; Inside American Philanthropy (Norman, 1996); and Edward H. Berman, The Ideology of Philanthropy: The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (Albany, 1983).
28. Quoted in McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy, 65-81. See also Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York, 1972), esp. 379ff.; Inside American Philanthropy (Norman, 1996); and Edward H. Berman, The Ideology of Philanthropy: The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (Albany, 1983).
29. Quoted in McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy, 65-81. See also Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York, 1972), esp. 379ff.; Inside American Philanthropy (Norman, 1996); and Edward H. Berman, The Ideology of Philanthropy: The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (Albany, 1983).
30. Quoted in McCarthy, ed., Philanthropy, 65-81. See also Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York, 1972), esp. 379ff.; Inside American Philanthropy (Norman, 1996); and Edward H. Berman, The Ideology of Philanthropy: The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (Albany, 1983).
31. See, for example, Manès Sperber, Bis man mir Scherben auf die Augen legt [Until one puts shards of glass in my eyes] (Munich, 1982); Herbert R. Lottman, The Left Bank (San Francisco, 1991); and Tony Judt, Past Imperfect (Berkeley, 1992).
32. See, for example, Manès Sperber, Bis man mir Scherben auf die Augen legt [Until one puts shards of glass in my eyes] (Munich, 1982); Herbert R. Lottman, The Left Bank (San Francisco, 1991); and Tony Judt, Past Imperfect (Berkeley, 1992).
33. See, for example, Manès Sperber, Bis man mir Scherben auf die Augen legt [Until one puts shards of glass in my eyes] (Munich, 1982); Herbert R. Lottman, The Left Bank (San Francisco, 1991); and Tony Judt, Past Imperfect (Berkeley, 1992).
34. See, for example, Walter Laqueur, Fascism (Harmondsworth, 1979); and James V. Compton, The Swastika and the Eagle: Hitler, the United States, and the Origins of the Second World War (Boston, 1967).
35. See, for example, Walter Laqueur, Fascism (Harmondsworth, 1979); and James V. Compton, The Swastika and the Eagle: Hitler, the United States, and the Origins of the Second World War (Boston, 1967).
36. See, for example, Cordell Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull (New York 1948).
37. See, for example, Arnold A. Offner, American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, MA, 1969); Callum A. Macdonald, The United States, Britain, and Appeasement, 1936-1939 (London, 1981); and Karl Rohe, ed., Die Westmächte und das Dritte Reich [The Western powers and the Third Reich] (Paderborn, 1982).
38. See, for example, Arnold A. Offner, American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, MA, 1969); Callum A. Macdonald, The United States, Britain, and Appeasement, 1936-1939 (London, 1981); and Karl Rohe, ed., Die Westmächte und das Dritte Reich [The Western powers and the Third Reich] (Paderborn, 1982).
39. See, for example, Arnold A. Offner, American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933-1938 (Cambridge, MA, 1969); Callum A. Macdonald, The United States, Britain, and Appeasement, 1936-1939 (London, 1981); and Karl Rohe, ed., Die Westmächte und das Dritte Reich [The Western powers and the Third Reich] (Paderborn, 1982).
40. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950 (New York, 1981). 28. See also Charles A. Thomson and W. H. C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington, 1965); Emily Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982); and C. Frankel, The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Afairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad (Washington, 1965).
41. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950 (New York, 1981). 28. See also Charles A. Thomson and W. H. C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington, 1965); Emily Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982); and C. Frankel, The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Afairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad (Washington, 1965).
42. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950 (New York, 1981). 28. See also Charles A. Thomson and W. H. C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington, 1965); Emily Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982); and C. Frankel, The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Afairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad (Washington, 1965).
43. Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950 (New York, 1981). 28. See also Charles A. Thomson and W. H. C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington, 1965); Emily Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982); and C. Frankel, The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Afairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad (Washington, 1965).
44. Richard Harris Smith, OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency (New York, 1972).
45. Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York, 1956). See also Abbott Gleason, Totalitarianism (New York, 1995).
46. Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (New York, 1956). See also Abbott Gleason, Totalitarianism (New York, 1995).
47. Wilfried Loth, The Division of the World (New York, 1988).
48. Ford Foundation, Financial Statement, 31 December 1950, 1.
49. Ibid., 2.
50. See Nielsen, Big Foundations, 31, 78.
51. Ford Foundation, "A Ten-Year Summary, 1951-1960," June 1960, passim.
52. On McCloy see Thomas A. Schwartz, America's Germany: John J. McCloy and the federal Republic of Germany (Cambridge, MA, 1991).
53. Hoffman to Eisenhower, 21 August 1952, Stone Papers, binder "Personal File, 1982." Shepard Stone's papers, comprising a large number of boxes and filing cabinets, are now in the Dartmouth College Library. They are not yet catalogued, however. The references given here are preliminary. I hope to publish a fuller study based on these and other materials in 1999.
54. On the CFR in general see Michael Wala, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Oxford, 1994).
55. Some material on this mission is contained in the Stone Papers.
56. See, for example, David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York, 1978); and Richard Gid Powers, Not without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism (New York, 1995).
57. See, for example, David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York, 1978); and Richard Gid Powers, Not without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism (New York, 1995).
58. See Volker R. Berghahn, "Shepard Stone and the Ford Foundation," in The Ford Foundation and Europe, ed. Giuliana Gemelli (Brussels, 1998), 69-93.
59. For details see Pierre Grémion, Intelligence de l'anticommunisme: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (Paris, 1995), 15ff.; and Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy (New York, 1989). The Rockefeller Foundation temporarily funded the German intellectual journal Merkur.
60. For details see Pierre Grémion, Intelligence de l'anticommunisme: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (Paris, 1995), 15ff.; and Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy (New York, 1989). The Rockefeller Foundation temporarily funded the German intellectual journal Merkur.
61. See, for example, J. Robert Wegs, Europe since 1945: A Concise History (New York, 1991).
62. See, for example, Kaspar Maase, Grenzenloses Vergnügen. Der Aufstieg der Massenkultur [Limitless pleasure: The rise of mass culture] (Frankfurt, 1997).
63. Speier to Gaither, 5 May 1951, Gaither Files, box 1, folder: 1, Ford Foundation Archives, New York. On the origins and development of the European program more generally see Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation and Europe: Ambitions and Ambivalances," in Gemelli, ed., Ford Foundation, 21-66.
64. Katz to Hoffman et al., 20 March 1952, Stone Papers, drawer "Old Chrons.," folder: European Program Paper (first draft).
65. Stone to Reuter, 12 August 1953, Stone Papers, drawer "World War II," folder: Reuter.
66. Stone to Price, 3 December 1953, Stone Papers, drawer "Old Chrons.," folder: Area I (Organization).
67. Price to International Programs Staff, 28 June 1954, Stone Papers, drawer "Old Chrons.," folder: Area I (Organization).
68. S. Stone, "Notes on European Trip, June 15-July 28, 1954," 1 August 1954, Stone Papers, drawer "Overseas Trips," folder: European Trip.
69. See, for example, Uta Poiger, "Rebels with a Cause: American Popular Culture, the 1956 Youth Riots, and New Conceptions of Masculinity in East and West Germany," in Pommerin, ed., American Impact, 93-124; and David Strauss, Menace in the West: The Rise of French Antiamericanism in Modern Times (Westport, CT, 1978).
70. See, for example, Uta Poiger, "Rebels with a Cause: American Popular Culture, the 1956 Youth Riots, and New Conceptions of Masculinity in East and West Germany," in Pommerin, ed., American Impact, 93-124; and David Strauss, Menace in the West: The Rise of French Antiamericanism in Modern Times (Westport, CT, 1978).
71. See esp. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology (Glencoe, 1960).
72. See Grémion, L'Intelligence, 53ff.; and Coleman, Conspiracy, 59ff.
73. See Grémion, L'Intelligence, 53ff.; and Coleman, Conspiracy, 59ff.
74. As footnote 46 above.
75. W. A. Nielsen memorandum of conversation with president Gaither. (summer 1954), Stone Papers, drawer "Old Chrons," folder: European Program.
76. See the materials in Stone Papers, drawer "Countries," folder: SS[tone] - Europe, January-March 1957.
77. Herter to Heald, 5 August 1958, Heald Files, box 12, folder: 150, Ford Foundation Archives.
78. Submission by International Affairs to Executive Committee meeting, 12 December 1959, Stone Papers, box 9, Loose Materials.
79. Stone to Central File, 24 October 1958, Stone Papers, box 2, file 7.
80. London 1962. A history of St. Antony's College is being written by Anthony J. and Christine Nicholls.
81. Among the people mentioned were David Footman, Max Hayward, Carew Hunt, George Katkov, Wolfgang Leonhard, Isaiah Berlin, and Max Beloff.
82. Stone to Central File, 24 October 1958, Stone Papers, box 2, file 7.
83. Stone to Nielsen, 13 February 1958, Stone Papers, box 2, file 2.
84. Submission by International Affairs to Board of Trustees meeting, 11 December 1959, Stone Papers, box 9, Loose Materials.
85. On Braudel's American connections see Giuliana Gemelli, Fernand Braudel (Paris, 1995).
86. See, for example, Jean Monnet, Memoirs (London, 1978); and John Gillingham, Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (New York, 1991).
87. See, for example, Jean Monnet, Memoirs (London, 1978); and John Gillingham, Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (New York, 1991).
88. Submission by International Affairs to Executive Committee meeting, 24 September 1959, Stone Papers, box 9, Loose Materials.
89. See, for example, Giuliana Gemelli, "From Imitation to Competitive Cooperation: The Ford Foundation and Management Education in Western and Eastern Europe," in Gemelli, ed., Ford Foundation, 167-304.
90. Nielsen to Stone, 19 July 1959, Stone Papers, drawer "Countries," folder: W. A. Nielsen.
91. Joachim E. Behrendt, Das Jazzbuch [The book of jazz] (Frankfurt, 1953); Poiger, "Rebels"; and L. Bergreen, Louis Armstrong (New York, 1997).
92. Joachim E. Behrendt, Das Jazzbuch [The book of jazz] (Frankfurt, 1953); Poiger, "Rebels"; and L. Bergreen, Louis Armstrong (New York, 1997).
93. Joachim E. Behrendt, Das Jazzbuch [The book of jazz] (Frankfurt, 1953); Poiger, "Rebels"; and L. Bergreen, Louis Armstrong (New York, 1997).
94. Grémion, L'Intelligence, 429ff.; and Coleman, Conspiracy, 220ff.
95. Grémion, L'Intelligence, 429ff.; and Coleman, Conspiracy, 220ff.
96. See, for example, William A. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959); and Gabriel and Joyce Kolko, The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945-1954 (New York 1972).
97. See, for example, William A. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1959); and Gabriel and Joyce Kolko, The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945-1954 (New York 1972).
98. See, for example, R. F. Armore, ed., Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism (Bloomington, 1982), with a number of very critical contributions on the big American foundations.
99. See, for example, Stone to McCloy, 8 June 1962, Stone Papers, drawer "Personal Files," folder: Organization - Undisclosed Funds: "During the past year there has been a discussion within the Foundation of the desirability and propriety of supporting institutions which also receive funds from covert governmental sources. . . . This memorandum recommends that in carefully selected situations which are considered to be of unusual significance, the Foundation may make grants to institutions which are prepared to give up all financing from and all connections with covert agencies."
100. Grémion, L'Intelligence, 460ff.
101. Nielsen Big Foundations, 379ff., discusses "the endless, ambiguous interface," but his book was published in 1972 and hence does not include later developments. It also seems that the other big philanthropic organizations never went as far as the Ford Foundation. On the other hand, there were a few smaller foundations that directly acted as conduits for covert government funds. The opening of the CIA files would presumably finally enable us to examine that end of the story. See also Richard M. Bissell, Jr., Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs (New Haven, 1996); and Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York, 1980).
102. Nielsen Big Foundations, 379ff., discusses "the endless, ambiguous interface," but his book was published in 1972 and hence does not include later developments. It also seems that the other big philanthropic organizations never went as far as the Ford Foundation. On the other hand, there were a few smaller foundations that directly acted as conduits for covert government funds. The opening of the CIA files would presumably finally enable us to examine that end of the story. See also Richard M. Bissell, Jr., Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs (New Haven, 1996); and Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York, 1980).
103. Nielsen Big Foundations, 379ff., discusses "the endless, ambiguous interface," but his book was published in 1972 and hence does not include later developments. It also seems that the other big philanthropic organizations never went as far as the Ford Foundation. On the other hand, there were a few smaller foundations that directly acted as conduits for covert government funds. The opening of the CIA files would presumably finally enable us to examine that end of the story. See also Richard M. Bissell, Jr., Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs (New Haven, 1996); and Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York, 1980).
104. See the discussion of Bell's work in this particular context in Berghahn, "Shepard Stone."
105. Maase, Vergnügen, 274f. See also Bernard Rosenberg and David M. White, eds., Mass Culture Revisited (New York, 1972).
106. Maase, Vergnügen, 274f. See also Bernard Rosenberg and David M. White, eds., Mass Culture Revisited (New York, 1972).
107. See, for example, Benjamin Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld (New York, 1995).