Disinfection of domestic water systems for Legionella pneumophila

Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA

Volumn 52, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 341-354

  Campos, C ^a   Loret, J F ^a   Cooper, A J ^b   Kelly, R F ^c  

^a CIRSEE   (France)

^b NALCO COMPANY   (United States)

^c Research and Development Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Amoebae; Disinfection; Legionella pneumophila

Indexed keywords

DISINFECTION; IONIZATION; ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION;

INORGANIC OXIDANTS;

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS;

DISINFECTION; MICROORGANISM; PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT; WATER TREATMENT;

LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA;

EID: 0043264898     PISSN: 00037214     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2166/aqua.2003.0032     Document Type: Review

References (69)

1. Anand, C. M. R., Skinner, A., Malic, A. & Kurtz, J. B. 1983 Interaction of Legionella pneumophila and free living amoeba (Acanthamoeba palestinensis). J. Hyg. Camb. 91, 167-178.
2. Antopol, S. C. & Ellner, P. D. 1979 Susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila to UV radiation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38(2), 347-348.
3. Armon, R., Starosvetzky, J., Arbe, I. T. & Green, M. 1997 Survival of Legionella pneumophila and Salmonella typhimurium in biofilm systems. Wat. Sci. Technol. 35(11-12), 293-300.
4. Barbaree, J. M., Fields, B. S., Feeley, J. C., Gorman, G. W. & Martin, W. T. 1986 Isolation of protozoa from water associated with a legionellosis outbreak and demonstration of intracellular multiplication of Legionella pneumophila. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52(1), 422-424.
5. Barker, J., Brown, M. R. W., Collier, P. J., Farrell, I. & Gilbert, P. 1992 Relationship between Legionella pneumophila and Acanthamoeba polyphaga: physiological status and susceptibility to chemical inactivation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(8), 2420-2425.
6. Berg, J. D., Hoff, J. C., Roberts, P. V. & Matin, A. 1988 Resistance of bacterial subpopulations to disinfection by chlorine dioxide. J. Am. Wat. Wks Assoc. 80(9), 115-119.
7. Berk, S. G., Ting, R. S., Turner, G. W. & Ashburn, R. J. 1998 Production of respirable vesicles containing live Legionella pneumophila cells by two Acanthamoeba spp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64(1), 279-286.
8. Bertinchamps, C. & Masschelein, W. J. 1990 Elimination des Legionella pneumophila par des desinfectants alternatifs au chlore. Tribune de l'Eau. 542, 49-52.
9. Best, M. G., Goezt, A. & Yu, V. L. 1984 Heat eradication measures for control of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease: implementation, education and cost analysis. Am. J. Infect. Cont. 12, 26-30.
10. Breiman, R. F., Fields, B. S., Sanden, G. N., Volmer, L., Meier, A. & Spika, J. S. 1990 Association of shower use with Legionnaires' disease: possible rifle of amoeba. J. Am. Med. Ass. 263(21), 2924-2926.
11. Cabanes, P. A. & Geneste, C. 1999 Légionelloses et eau chaude sanitaire. Energies santé 10(2 (93)), 195-211.
12. Cargill, K. L., Pyle, B. H., Sauer, R. L. & McFeter, G. A. 1992 Effects of culture conditions and biofilm formation on the iodine susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila. Can. J. Microbiol. 38, 423-429.
13. Cassells, J., Yahya, M., Guerba, C. & Rose, J. 1995 Efficacy of a combined system of copper and silver and free chlorine for inactivation of Naegleria fowleri amoebas in water. Wat. Sci. Technol. 31(5-6), 119-122.
14. CDC 2002 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 50(51/52).
15. Chang, J. C. H., Ossof, S. F., Lobe, D. C., Dorfman, M. H., Dumais, C. M., Qualls, R. G. & Johnson, J. D. 1985 UV inactivation of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49, 1361-1365.
16. Cunliffe, D. A. 1990 Inactivation of Legionella pneumophila by monochloramine. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 68, 453-459.
17. DGS 1997 Circulaire DGS no. 97/311 du 24 avril 1997 relative á la surveillance et á la prevention de la légionellose. Ministere du travail et des affaires sociales, Paris, France.
18. DGS 1998 Circulaire DGS/VS4 no. 98-771 du 31/12/98 relative á la mise en oeuvre de bonnes pratiques d'entretien des réseaux d'eau dans les établissements de santé et aux moyens de prévention du risque lié aux légionelles dans les installations á risque et dans celles des bâtiments recevant du public.
19. DGS 2002 Circulaire DGS/SD7A/SD5C-DHOS/E4 no. 2002/243 du 22/04/02 relative à la prevention du risque lié aux legionelles dans les établissements de santé.
20. Domingue, E. L., Tyndall, R. L., Mayberry, W. R. & Pancorbo, O. C. 1988 Effects of three oxidizing biocides on Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54(3), 741-747.
21. Dubrou, S., Nahapetian, K., Challemel, O. & Festy, B. 1992 Protozoaires et prolifération des Legionella dans les réseaux privés de distribution d'eau. Journal Français d'Hydrologie 23(2), 251-259.
22. DVGW (German Technical Scientific Organization on Gas and Water) W551 1993 Drinking water heating systems and conduits; technical measures to reduce Legionella growth.
23. DVGW (German Technical Scientific Organization on Gas and Water) W552 1996 Drinking water heating systems and conduits; technical measures to reduce Legionella growth: rehabilitation and operation.
24. Edelstein, P., Whittaker, R., Kreiling, R. & Howell, C. 1982 Efficacy of ozone in eradication of Legionella pneumophila from hospital plumbing fixtures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 44(6), 1330-1334.
25. Fields, B. S. 1993 Legionella and Protozoa: Interaction of a Pathogen and its Natural Host. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
26. Gilpin, R. W., Dillon, S. B., Keyser, P., Androkites, A., Berube, M., Carpendale, N., Skorina, J., Hurley, J. & Kaplan, M. 1985 Disinfection of circulating water systems by UV radiation light and halogenation. Wat. Res. 19(7), 839-848.
27. Haas, C. H., Khater, K. M. & Wotjas, A. T. 1985 Sensitivity of Vegetative Protozoa to Free and Combined Chlorine. Lewis Publishers Inc., Chelsea, MI.
28. Helms, C. M., Massanari, M., Wenzel, R. P., Pfaller, M. A., Moyer, N. P. & Hall, N. 1988 Legionnaires' disease associated with a hospital water system. A five-year progress report on continuous hyperchlorination. J. Am. Med. Ass. 259, 2423-2427.
29. HSC 2001 Legionnaires' Disease: The Control of Legionella Bacteria in Water Systems. Approved Code of Practice and Guidance. Health and Safety Commission, UK.
30. Jacangelo, G. J., Gerba, C. P., Haas, C. N. & Chellam, S. 2001 Inactivation Efficiencies of Emerging Pathogens by Chemical Disinfection Processes. American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver, CO.
31. Kilvington, S. & Price, J. 1990 Survival of Legionella pneumophila within cysts of Acanthamoeba polyphaga following chlorine exposure. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 68, 519-525.
32. King, C. H., Shotts, E. B., Wooley, R. E. & Porter, K. G. 1988 Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens with protozoa during chlorination. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54(12), 3023-3033.
33. Kool, J. L., Carpenter, J. C. & Fields, B. S. 1999 Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease. The Lancet 353(23), 272-277.
34. Kool, J. L., Carpenter, J. C. & Fields, B. S. 2000 Monochloramine and Legionnaires' disease. J. Am. Wat. Wks Assoc. 92(9), 88-96.
35. Kuchta, J. M., States, S. J., McNamara, A. M., Wadowsky, R. M. & Yee, R. B. 1983 Susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila to chlorine in tap water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46(5), 1134-1139.
36. Kuchta, J. M., States, S. J., Mcglaughlin, J. E., Overmeyer, J. H., Wadowsky, R. M., McNamara, A. M., Wolford, R. S. & Yee, R. B. 1985 Enhanced chlorine resistance of tap water-adapted Legionella pneumophila as compared with agar medium-passaged strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50(1), 21-26.
37. Kuchta, J. M., Navratil, J. S., Shepherd, M. E., Wadowsky, R. M., Dowling, J. N., States, S. J. & Yee, R. B. 1995 Impact of chlorine and heat on the survival of Hartmannella vermiformis and subsequent growth of Legionella pneumophila. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(12), 4096-4100.
38. Kusnetsov, J. M., Keskitalo, P.-J., Ahonen, H. E., Tulkki, A. I., Miettinen, I. T. & Martikainen, P. J. 1994 Growth of Legionella and other heterotrophic bacteria in a circulating cooling water system exposed to ultraviolet irradiation. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 77, 461-466.
39. Landeen, L. K., Yahya, M. T. & Gerba, C. P. 1989 Efficacy of copper and silver ions and reduced levels of free chlorine in inactivation of Legionella pneumophila. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(12), 5045-5050.
40. LeChevallier, M. W., Cawthon, C. D. & Lee, R. G. 1988 Inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54, 2492-2499.
41. Lin, Y. E., Vidic, R. D., Stout, J. E. & Yu, V. L. 1996 Individual and combined effects of copper and silver ions on inactivation of Legionella pneumophila. Wat. Res. 30(8), 1905-1913.
42. Lin, Y. E., Stout, J. E., Yu, V. L. & Vidic, R. D. 1998a Disinfection of water distribution systems for Legionella. Sem. Resp. Infect. 13(2), 147-159.
43. Lin, Y. E., Vidic, R. D., Stout, J. E., McCartney, C. A. & Yu, V. L. 1998b Inactivation of Mycobacterium avium by copper and silver ions. Wat. Res. 32(7), 1997-2000.
44. Lin, Y. E., Vidic, R. D., Stout, J. E., & Yu, V. L. 1998c Legionella in water distribution systems. J. Am. Wat. Wks Assoc. 90(9), 112-121.
45. Liu, Z., Stout, J. E., Tedesco, L., Boldin, C. H., Diven, W. F. & Yu, V. L. 1994 Controlled evaluation of copper-silver ionisation in eradicating Legionella pneumophila from a hospital water distribution system. J. Infect. Dis. 169, 919-922.
46. Miyamoto, M., Yamaguchi, Y. & Sasatsu, M. 2000 Disinfectant effects of hot water, UV radiation light, silver ions and chlorine on strains of Legionella and nontuberculous mycobacteria. Microbios. 101, 7-15.
47. Moreno, C., De Blas, I., Miralles, F., Apraiz, D. & Catalan, V. 1997 A simple method for the eradication of Legionella pneumophila from potable water systems. Can. J. Microbiol. 43, 1189-1196.
48. Muraca, P. W., Stout, J. E. & Yu, V. L. 1987 Comparative assessment of chlorine, heat, ozone, and UV radiation light for killing Legionella pneumophila within a model plumbing system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53(2), 447-453.
49. Muraca, P. W., Yu, V. L. & Goetz, A. 1990 Disinfection of water distribution systems for Legionella: a review of application procedures and methodologies. Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol. 11(2), 79-88.
50. Nahapetian, K., Challemel, O., Beurtin, D., Dubrou, S., Gounon, P. & Squinazi, F. 1991 The intracellular multplication of Legionella pneumophila in protozoa from hospital plumbing systems. Res. Microbiol. 142, 667-685.
51. Newsome, A. L., Scott, T. M., Benson, R. F. & Fields, B. S. 1998 Isolation of an Amoeba naturally harboring a distinctive Legionella species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64(5), 1688-1693.
52. Pavey, N. L. & Roper, M. 1998 Chlorine dioxide water treatment for hot and cold water services. The Building Services Research and Information Association, Bracknell, Berkshire, UK.
53. Perrine, D. & Langlais, B. 1986 Légionelloses et procédés de désinfection des eaux. L'eau, l'industrie, les nuisances 104, 55-57.
54. Rennecker, J. L., Driedger, A. M., Rubin, S. A. & Marinas, B. J. 2000 Synergy in sequential inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum with ozone/free chlorine and ozone/monochloramine. Wat. Res. 35(12), 2950-2960.
55. Rohr, U., Senger, M., Selenka, F., Turley, R. & Wilhelm, M. 1999 Four years of experience with silver-copper ionisation for control of Legionella in a German University hospital hot water plumbing system. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29, 1507-1511.
56. Rohr, U., Weber, U., Selenka, F. & Wilhelm, M. 2000 Impact of silver and copper on the survival of amoebae and ciliated protozoa in vitro. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 203, 87-89.
57. Rowbotham, T. J. 1993 Legionella-like Amoebal Pathogens. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
58. Slawson, R. M., Lee, H. & Trevors, J. 1990 Bacterial Interactions with Silver. Springer-Verlag.
59. Sobsey, M. D. 1989 Inactivation of health related microorganisms in water disinfection processes. Wat. Sci. Technol. 21, 179-195.
60. States, S., Kuchta, J., Young, W., Conley, L., Ge, J., Costello, M., Dowling, J. & Wadowsky, R. 1998 Controlling Legionella using copper-silver ionisation. J. Am. Wat. Wks Assoc. 90(9), 122-129.
61. Steinert, M., Ockert, G., Lück, C. & Hacker, J. 1998 Regrowth of Legionella pneumophila in heat-disinfected plumbing system. Zent. bl. Bakteriol. 288, 331-342.
62. Stout, J. E., Best, M. G. & Yu, V. L. 1986 Susceptibility of members of the family Legionellaceae to thermal stress: implications for heat eradication methods in water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52(2), 396-399.
63. Stout, J. E., Lin, Y.-U. E., Goetz, A. M. & Muder, R. R. 1998 Controlling Legionella in hospital water systems: experience with the superheat-and-flush method and copper-silver ionisation. Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol. 19(12), 911-914.
64. Tobin, R. S., Ewan, P., Walsh, K. & Dutka, B. 1986 A survey of Legionella pneumophila in water in 12 Canadian cities. Wat. Res. 20(4), 495-501.
65. Viswanathan, V. K., Edelstein, P. H., Pope, C. D. & Cianciotto, N. P. 2000 The Legionella pneumophila iraAB locus is required for iron assimilation, intracellular infection and virulence. Infect. & Immun. 68(3), 1069-1079.
66. WHO 2000 Weekly Epidemiological Record 75, 347-352.
67. Winiecka-Krusnel, J. & Linder, E. 1999 Free-living Amoeba protecting Legionella in water: the tip of an iceberg. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 31, 383-385.
68. Wright, J., Ruseska, I. & Costerton, J. 1991 Decreased biocide susceptibility of adherent Legionella pneumophila. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 71(6), 531-538.
69. Yahya, M. T., Straub, T. M. & Gerba, C. P. 1992 Inactivation of coliphage MS-2 and poliovirus by copper, silver, and chlorine. Can. J. Microbiol. 38, 430-435.