Achalasia: A comprehensive review

Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy and Percutaneous Techniques

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 227-240

  St Peter, Shawn D ^b   Swain, James M ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Achalasia; Controversies; Diagnosis; Treatment

Indexed keywords

BARIUM; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA 3 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BOTULINUM TOXIN A; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; NIFEDIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; PHOSPHODIESTERASE INHIBITOR; VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL POLYPEPTIDE;

BALLOON DILATATION; BARIUM MEAL; CANCER RISK; CHAGAS DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; ENDOSCOPIC ECHOGRAPHY; ESOPHAGOSCOPY; ESOPHAGUS ACHALASIA; ESOPHAGUS BIOPSY; ESOPHAGUS CARCINOMA; ESOPHAGUS MANOMETRY; ESOPHAGUS MOTILITY; ESOPHAGUS MYOTOMY; ESOPHAGUS PH; ESOPHAGUS SCINTISCANNING; EVALUATION; FOLLOW UP; GANGLION; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GENDER; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; LAPAROSCOPY; LOWER ESOPHAGUS SPHINCTER; LOWER ESOPHAGUS SPHINCTER PRESSURE; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY; MYENTERIC PLEXUS; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NONHUMAN; ONSET AGE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSEUDOACHALASIA; REVIEW; STOMACH FUNDOPLICATION; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; THORACOSCOPY; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI;

EID: 0043198575     PISSN: 10517200     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00129689-200308000-00002     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Mayberry JF, Atkinson M. Epidemiology and demographics of achalasia. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2001;11(2):235-248.
2. Sonnenberg A, Massey BT, McCarty DJ, et al. Epidemiology of hospitalization for achalasia in the United States. Dig Dis Sci. 1993;38(2):233-244.
3. Mayberry JF, Atkinson M. Variations in the prevalence of achalasia in Great Britain and Ireland: an epidemiological study based on hospital admissions. Q J Med. 1987;62(237):67-74.
4. Howard PJ, Maher L, Pryde A, et al. Five year prospective study of the incidence, clinical features, and diagnosis of achalasia in Edinburgh. Gut. 1992;33(8):1011-1015.
5. Castell DO. Esophageal disorders in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1990;19(2):235-254.
6. Ho KY, Tay HH, Kang JY. A prospective study of the clinical features, manometric findings, incidence and prevalence of achalasia in Singapore. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1999;14(8):791-795.
7. Cohen S, Fisher R, Tuch A. The site of denervation in achalasia. Gut. 1972;13(7):556-558.
8. Hirano I, Tatum RP, Shi G, et al. Manometric heterogeneity in patients with idiopathic achalasia. Gastroenterology. 2001;120(4):789-798.
9. Cassella rr. et al. Achalasia of the exophagus: pathologic and etiologic considerations. Ann Surg. 1964;46:279.
10. Aggestrup S, Uddman R, Sundler F, et al. Lack of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide nerves in esophageal achalasia. Gastroenterology. 1983;84(5 Pt 1):924-927.
11. Aggestrup S, Emson P, Uddman R, et al. Distribution and content of neuropeptide Y in the human lower esophageal sphincter. Digestion. 1987;36(2):68-73.
12. Watanabe Y, Ando H, Seo T, et al. Attenuated nitrergic inhibitory neurotransmission to interstitial cells of Cajal in the lower esophageal sphincter with esophageal achalasia in children. Pediatr Int. 2002;44(2):145-148.
13. Okike N, Payne WS, Neufeld DM, et al. Esophagomyotomy versus forceful dilation for achalasia of the esophagus: results in 899 patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 1979;28(2):119-125.
14. Eckardt VF, Stauf B, Bernhard G. Chest pain in achalasia: patient characteristics and clinical course. Gastroenterology. 1999;116 (6):1300-1304.
15. Jordan PH Jr. Longterm results of esophageal myotomy for achalasia. J Am Coll Surg. 2001;193(2):137-145.
16. Blam ME, Delfyett W, Levine MS, et al. Achalasia: a disease of varied and subtle symptoms that do not correlate with radiographic findings. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97(8):1916-1923.
17. Shi G, Ergun GA, Manka M, et al. Lower esophageal sphingter relaxation characteristics using a sleeve sensor in clinical manometry. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93:2373-2379.
18. Aliperti G, Clouse RE. Incomplete lower esophageal sphincter relaxation in subjects with peristalsis: prevalence and clinical outcome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;86:609-614.
19. Cameron AJ, Malcolm A, Prather CM, et al. Videoendoscopic diagnosis of esophageal motility disorders. Gastrointest Endosc. 1999;49(1):62-69.
20. Sezgin O, Ulker A, Temucin G. Sonographic findings in achalasia. J Clin Ultrasound. 2001;29(1):31-40.
21. Ziegler K, Sanft C, Friedrich M, et al. Endosonographic appearance of the esophagus in achalasia. Endoscopy. 1990;22:1-4.
22. Streitz JM Jr, Ellis FH Jr, Gibb SP, et al. Achalasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus: analysis of 241 patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;59(6):1604-1609.
23. Meijssen MA, Tilanus HW, van Blankenstein M, et al. Achalasia complicated by oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma: a prospective study in 195 patients. Gut. 1992;33(2):155-158.
24. Just-Viera JO, Haight C. Achalasia and carcinoma of the esophagus. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1969;128(5):1081-1095.
25. Brucher BL, Stein HJ, Bartels H, et al. Achalasia and esophageal cancer: incidence, prevalence, and prognosis. World J Surg. 2001;25(6):745-749.
26. West RL, Hirsch DP, Bartelsman JF, et al. Long term results of pneumatic dilation in achalasia followed for more than 5 years. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97(6):1346-1351.
27. Lehman MB, Clark SB, Ormsby AH, et al. Squamous mucosal alterations in esophagectomy specimens from patients with endstage achalasia. Am J Surg Pathol. 2001;25(11):1413-1418.
28. Safatle-Ribeiro AV, Ribeiro U Jr, Sakai P, et al. Integrated p53 histopathologic/genetic analysis of premalignant lesions of the esophagus. Cancer Detect Prev. 2000;24(1):13-23.
29. Koberle F. Chagas' Diseseas and Chagas' Syndrome. The pathology of the American Trypanosomiasis. Adv Parasitol. 1968;6:63-116.
30. Lemme EMO, Domingues GR, Pereira VLC, Firman CG, Pantoja J. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure in idopathic a chalasia and Chagas disease-related achalasia. Dis Esophagus. 2001;14:232-234.
31. Liu W, Fackler W, Rice TW, et al. The pathogenesis of pseudoachalasia: a clinicopathologic study of 13 cases of a rare entity. Am J Surg Pathol. 2002;26(6):784-788.
32. Woodfield CA, Levine MS, Rubesin SE, et al. Diagnosis of primary versus secondary achalasia: reassessment of clinical and radiographic criteria. Am J Roentgenol. 2000;175(3):727-731.
33. Carter M, Deckmann RC, Smith RC, et al. Differentiation of achalasia from pseudoachalasia by computed tomography. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997;92(4):624-628.
34. Moonka R, Pellegrini CA. Malignant pseudoachalasia. Surg Endosc. 1999;13(3):273-275.
35. Coccia G, Bortolotti M, Michetti P, et al. Prospective clinical and manometric study comparing pneumatic dilatation and sublingual nifedipine in the treatment of oesophageal achalasia. Gut. 1991;32(6):604-606.
36. Traube M, Dubovik S, Lange RC, et al. The role of nifedipine therapy in achalasia: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol. 1989;84(10):1259-1262.
37. Gelfond M, Rozen P, Gilat T. Isosorbide dinitrate and nifedipine treatment of achalasia: a clinical, manometric and radionuclide evaluation. Gastroenterology. 1982;83(5):963-969.
38. Wong RK, Maydonovitch C, Garcia JE, et al. The effect of terbutaline sulfate, nitroglycerin, and aminophylline on lower esophageal sphincter pressure and radionuclide esophageal emptying in patients with achalasia. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1987;9(4): 386-389.
39. DiMarino AJ Jr, Cohen S. Effect of an oral beta2-adrenergic agonist on lower esophageal sphincter pressure in normals and in patients with achalasia. Dig Dis Sci. 1982;27(12):1063-1066.
40. Marzio L, Grossi L, DeLaurentiis MF, et al. Effect of cimetropium bromide on esophageal motility and transit in patients affected by primary achalasia. Dig Dis Sci. 1994;39(7):1389-1394.
41. Dimarino M, Banwait K, Rattan S, et al. Beta3 adrenergic stimulation inhibits the opossum lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroenterology. 2002;123(5):1508-1515.
42. Vaezi MF, Richter JE. Current therapies for achalasia: comparison and efficacy. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;27(1):21-35.
43. Birgisson S, Richter JE. Achalasia: what's new in diagnosis and treatment? Dig Dis. 1997;15(Suppl 1):1-27.
44. Ray P. Botulinum toxin A inhibits acetylcholine release from cultured neurons in vitro. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 1993;29A(6):456-460.
45. Jankovic J, Brin MF. Botulinum toxin: historical perspective and potential new indications. Muscle Nerve Suppl. 1997;6: S129-S145.
46. Mahant N, Clouston PD, Lorentz IT. The current use of botulinum toxin. J Clin Neurosci. 2000;7(5):389-394.
47. Bell MS, Vermeulen LC, Sperling KB. Pharmacotherapy with botulinum toxin: harnessing nature's most potent neurotoxin. Pharmacotherapy. 2000;20(9):1079-1091.
48. Callaway JE, Arezzo JC, Grethlein AJ. Botulinum toxin type B: an overview of its biochemistry and preclinical pharmacology. Dis Mon. 2002;48(5):367-383.
49. Lew MF, Adornato BT, Duane DD, et al. Botulinum toxin type B: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, safety and efficacy study in cervical dystonia. Neurology. 1997;49(3):701-707.
50. Poli MA, Rivera VR, Neal D. Development of sensitive colorimetric capture ELISAs for Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin serotypes E and F. Toxicon. 2002;40(6):797-802.
51. Pasricha PJ, Ravich WJ, Kalloo AN. Botulinum toxin for achalasia. Lancet. 1993;341(8839):244-245.
52. Pasricha PJ, Ravich WJ, Hendrix TR, et al. Intrasphincteric botulinum toxin for the treatment of achalasia. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(12):774-778.
53. Pasricha PJ, Rai R, Ravich WJ, et al. Botulinum toxin for achalasia: long-term outcome and predictors of response. Gastroenterology. 1996;110(5):1410-1415.
54. Fishman VM, Parkman HP, Schiano TD, et al. Symptomatic improvement in achalasia after botulinum toxin injection of the lower esophageal sphincter. Am J Gastroenterol. 1996;91(9): 1724-1730.
55. Cuilliere C, Ducrotte P, Zerbib F, et al. Achalasia: outcome of patients treated with intrasphincteric injection of botulinum toxin. Gut. 1997;41(1):87-92.
56. Annese V, Basciani M, Borrelli O, et al. Intrasphincteric injection of botulinum toxin is effective in long-term treatment of esophageal achalasia. Muscle Nerve. 1998;21(11):1540-1542.
57. Annese V, Basciani M, Perri F, et al. Controlled trial of botulinum toxin injection versus placebo and pneumatic dilation in achalasia. Gastroenterology. 1996;111(6):1418-1424.
58. Annese V, Basciani M, Lombardi G, et al. Perendoscopic injection of botulinum toxin is effective in achalasia after failure of myotomy or pneumatic dilation. Gastrointest Endosc. 1996;44 (4):461-465.
59. Allescher HD, Storr M, Seige M, et al. Treatment of achalasia: botulinum toxin injection vs. pneumatic balloon dilation. A prospective study with long-term follow-Up. Endoscopy. 2001;33(12):1007-1017.
60. Gordon JM, Eaker EY. Prospective study of esophageal botulinum toxin injection in high-risk achalasia patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997;92(10):1812-1817.
61. Wehrmann T, Kokabpick H, Jacobi V, et al. Prospective study of esophageal botulinum toxin injection in high-risk achalasia patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997;92(10):1812-1817.
62. Wevers AC, Bartelsman JF, Tytgat GN. Pneumodilatation as a treatment of esophageal achalasial Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1985;129(42):2015-2018.
63. Vantrappen G, Hellemans J, Deloof W, et al. Treatment of achalasia with pneumatic dilatations. Gut. 1971;12(4):268-275.
64. Csendes A, Velasco N, Braghetto I, et al. A prospective randomized study comparing forceful dilatation and esophagomyotomy in patients with achalasia of the esophagus. Gastroenterology. 1981;80(4):789-795.
65. Eckardt VF, Aignherr C, Bernhard G. Predictors of outcome in patients with achalasia treated by pneumatic dilation. Gastroenterology. 1992;103(6):1732-1738.
66. Kadakia SC, Wong RK. Graded pneumatic dilation using Rigiflex achalasia dilators in patients with primary esophageal achalasia. Am J Gastroenterol. 1993;88(1):34-38.
67. Wehrmann T, Jacobi V, Jung M, et al. Pneumatic dilation in achalasia with a low-compliance balloon: results of a 5-year prospective evaluation. Gastrointest Endosc. 1995;42(1):31-36.
68. Becker K, Biesenbach S, Erckenbrecht JF, et al. Effect of balloon compliance on symptomatic success of pneumatic dilation in achalasia patients. Z Gastroenterol. 2001;39(10):831-836.
69. Parkman HP, Reynolds JC, Ouyang A, et al. Pneumatic dilatation or esophagomyotomy treatment for idiopathic achalasia: clinical outcomes and cost analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 1993;38(1):75-85.
70. Sabharwal T, Cowling M, Dussek J, et al. Balloon dilation for achalasia of the cardia: experience in 76 patients. Radiology. 2002;224(3):719-724.
71. Penagini R, Cantu P, Mangano M, et al. Long-term effects of pneumatic dilatation on symptoms and lower oesophageal sphincter pressure in achalasia. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2002;37(4):380-384.
72. Katz PO, Gilbert J, Castell DO. Pneumatic dilatation is effective long-term treatment for achalasia. Dig Dis Sci. 1998;43(9):1973-1977.
73. Eckardt VF, Aignherr C, Bernhard G. Predictors of outcome in patients with achalasia treated by pneumatic dilation. Gastroenterology. 1992;103(6):1732-1738.
74. Csendes A, Braghetto I, Henriquez A, et al. Late results of a prospective randomised study comparing forceful dilatation and oesophagomyotomy in patients with achalasia. Gut. 1989;30(3): 299-304.
75. Levine ML, Moskowitz GW, Dorf BS, et al. Pneumatic dilation in patients with achalasia with a modified Gruntzig dilator (Levine) under direct endoscopic control: results after 5 years. Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;86(11):1581-1584.
76. Gugulski A, Bartnik W, Butruk E. Long-term results of treatment of esophageal achalasia using a Starck dilator. Digestion. 1996;57(6):383-387.
77. Robertson CS, Fellows IW, Mayberry JF, et al. Choice of therapy for achalasia in relation to age. Digestion. 1988;40(4):244-250.
78. Nair LA, Reynolds JC, Parkman HP, et al. Complications during pneumatic dilation for achalasia or diffuse esophageal spasm. Analysis of risk factors, early clinical characteristics, and outcome. Dig Dis Sci. 1993;38(10):1893-1904.
79. Zarate N, Mearin F, Baldovino F, et al. Achalasia treatment in the elderly: is botulinum toxin injection the best option? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2002;14(3):285-290.
80. Vaezi MF, Richter JE, Wilcox CM, et al. Botulinum toxin versus pneumatic dilatation in the treatment of achalasia: a randomised trial. Gut. 1999;44(2):231-239.
81. Mikaeli J, Fazel A, Montazeri G, et al. Randomized controlled trial comparing botulinum toxin injection to pneumatic dilatation for the treatment of achalasia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2001;15(9):1389-1396.
82. Annese V, Basciani M, Perri F, et al. Controlled trial of botulinum toxin injection versus placebo and pneumatic dilation in achalasia. Gastroenterology. 1996;111(6):1418-1424.
83. O'Connor JB, Singer ME, Imperiale TF, et al. The cost-effectiveness of treatment strategies for achalasia. Dig Dis Sci. 2002;47(7):1516-1525.
84. Heller E. Extramokose kardioplastik beim chronischen kardiospasmus mit dilatation des oesophagus. Mitt Grenzgeb Med Chir. 1914;27:141-149.
85. Zaaijer jh. Cardiospasm in the aged. Ann Surg. 1923;77:615-617.
86. Ellis FH, Olsen AM, Holman CB, et al. Surgical treatment of cardiospasm (achalasia of the esophagus): consideration of aspects of exophagomyotomy. JAMA. 1958;166:29.
87. Pellegrini C, Wetter LA, Patti M, et al. Thoracoscopic esophagomyotomy. Initial experience with a new approach for the treatment of achalasia. Ann Surg. 1992;216(3):291-296.
88. Shimi S, Nathanson LK, Cuschieri A. Laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia. J R Coll Surg Edinb. 1991;36(3):152-154.
89. Anselmino M, Zaninotto G, Costantini M, et al. One-year follow-up after laparoscopic Heller-Dor operation for esophageal achalasia. Surg Endosc. 1997;11(1):3-7.
90. Bloomston M, Serafini F, Rosemurgy AS. Videoscopic heller myotomy as first-line therapy for severe achalasia. Am Surg. 2001;67(11):1105-1109.
91. Patti MG, Pellegrini CA, Horgan S, et al. Minimally invasive surgery for achalasia: an 8-year experience with 168 patients. Ann Surg. 1999;230(4):587-593.
92. Hunter JG, Trus TL, Branum GD, et al. Laparoscopic Heller myotomy and fundoplication for achalasia. Ann Surg. 1997;225 (6):655-664.
93. Patti MG, Arcerito M, De Pinto M, et al. Comparison of thoracoscopic and laparoscopic Heller myotomy for achalasia. J Gastrointest Surg. 1998;2(6):561-566.
94. Stewart KC, Finley RJ, Clifton JC, et al. Thoracoscopic versus laparoscopic modified Heller Myotomy for achalasia: efficacy and safety in 87 patients. J Am Coll Surg. 1999;189(2):164-169.
95. Ramacciato G, Mercantini P, Amodio PM, et al. The laparoscopic approach with antireflux surgery is superior to the thoracoscopic approach for the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Experience of a single surgical unit. Surg Endosc. 2002;16(10):1431-1437.
96. Cade R. Heller's myotomy: thoracoscopic or laparoscopic? Dis Esophagus. 2000;13(4):279-281.
97. Wiechmann RJ, Ferguson MK, Naunheim KS, et al. Video-assisted surgical management of achalasia of the esophagus. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1999;118(5):916-923.
98. Jara FM, Toledo-Pereyra LH, Lewis JW, et al. Long-term results of esophagomyotomy for achalasia of esophagus. Arch Surg. 1979;114(8):935-936.
99. Csendes A, Braghetto I, Mascaro J, et al. Late subjective and objective evaluation of the results of esophagomyotomy in 100 patients with achalasia of the esophagus. Surgery. 1988;104(3): 469-475.
100. Finley RJ, Clifton JC, Stewart KC, et al. Laparoscopic Heller myotomy improves esophageal emptying and the symptoms of achalasia. Arch Surg. 2001;136(8):892-896.
101. Luketich JD, Fernando HC, Christie NA, et al. Outcomes after minimally invasive esophagomyotomy. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;72(6):1909-1912.
102. Malthaner RA, Tood TR, Miller L, et al. Long-term results in surgically managed esophageal achalasia. Ann Thorac Surg. 1994;58(5):1343-1346.
103. Shai SE, Chen CY, Hsu CP, et al. Transthoracic oesophagomyotomy in the treatment of achalasia - a 15-year experience. Scand Cardiovasc J. 1999;33(6):333-336.
104. Ellis FH Jr. Oesophagomyotomy for achalasia: a 22-year experience. Br J Surg. 1993;80(7):882-885.
105. Parrilla Paricio P, Martinez de Haro L, Ortiz A, et al. Achalasia of the cardia: long-term results of oesophagomyotomy and posterior partial fundoplication. Br J Surg. 1990;77(12):1371-1374.
106. Mbembati NA, Lema LE, Kahamba JF, et al. Operative management of achalasia of the oesophagus. East Afr Med J. 1994;71 (7):421-423.
107. Yamamura MS, Gilster JC, Myers BS, et al. Laparoscopic heller myotomy and anterior fundoplication for achalasia results in a high degree of patient satisfaction. Arch Surg. 2000;135(8):902-906.
108. Lai IR, Lee WJ, Huang MT. Laparoscopic Heller myotomy with fundoplication for achalasia. J Formos Med Assoc. 2002;101(5): 332-336.
109. Wills VL, Hunt DR. Functional outcome after Heller myotomy and fundoplication for achalasia. J Gastrointest Surg. 2001;5(4):408-413.
110. Mattioli S, Di Simone MP, Bassi F, et al. Surgery for esophageal achalasia, long-term results with three different techniques. Hepatogastroenterology. 1996;43(9):492-500.
111. Liu HC, Huang BS, Hsu WH, et al. Surgery for achalasia: long-term results in operated achalasic patients. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1998;4(6):312-320.
112. Kumar A, Wig JD, Kochhar R, et al. An audit of pneumatic dilatation and oesophagomyotomy in patients with achalasia cardia. Trop Gastroenterol. 1994;15(3):152-156.
113. Storr M, Born P, Frimberger E, et al. Treatment of achalasia: the short-term response to botulinum toxin injection seems to be independent of any kind of pretreatment. BMC Gastroenterol 2002;13;2(1):19.
114. Sauer L, Pellegrini CA, Way LW. The treatment of achalasia. A current perspective. Arch Surg. 1989;124(8):929-931.
115. Ferguson MK. Achalasia: current evaluation and therapy. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;52(2):336-342.
116. Patti MG, Tamburini A, Pellegrini CA. Cardiomyotomy. Semin Laparosc Surg. 1999;6(4):186-193.
117. Monson JR, Darzi A, Carey PD, et al. Thoracoscopic Heller's cardiomyotomy: a new approach for achalasia. Surg Laparosc Endosc. 1994;4(1):6-8.
118. Patti MG, Arcerito M, Pellegrini CA. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic Heller's myotomy in the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Ann Chir Gynaecol. 1995;84(2):159-164.
119. Bonavina L, Rosati R, Segalin A, et al. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic Heller's myotomy in the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Ann Chir Gynaecol. 1995;84(2):159-164.
120. Vara-Thorbeck C, Herrainz R. Esophageal achalasia: laparoscopic Heller cardiomyotomy. Int Surg. 1995;80(4):376-379.
121. Xynos E, Tzovaras G, Petrakis I, et al. Laparoscopic Heller's cardiomyotomy and Dor's fundoplication for esophageal achalasia. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1996;6(4):253-258.
122. Ackroyd R, Watson DI, Devitt PG, et al. Laparoscopic cardiomyotomy and anterior partial fundoplication for achalasia. Surg Endosc. 2001;15(7):683-686.
123. Collard JM, Romagnoli R, Lengele B, et al. Heller-Dor procedure for achalasia: from conventional to video-endoscopic surgery. Acta Chir Belg. 1996;96(2):62-65.
124. Zaninotto G, Costantini M, Portale G, et al. Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of failures after laparoscopic Heller myotomy for achalasia. Ann Surg. 2002;235(2):186-192.
125. Patti MG, Molena D, Fisichella PM, et al. Laparoscopic Heller myotomy and Dor fundoplication for achalasia: analysis of successes and failures. Arch Surg. 2001;136(8):870-877.
126. Hunter JG, Trus TL, Branum GD, et al. Laparoscopic Heller myotomy and fundoplication for achalasia. Ann Surg. 1997;225 (6):655-664.
127. Holzman MD, Sharp KW, Ladipo JK, et al. Laparoscopic surgical treatment of achalasia. Am J Surg. 1997;173(4):308-311.
128. Sharp KW, Khaitan L, Scholz S, et al. 100 consecutive minimally invasive Heller myotomies: lessons learned. Ann Surg. 2002;235(5):631-638.
129. Raiser F, Perdikis G, Hinder RA, et al. Heller myotomy via minimal-access surgery. An evaluation of antireflux procedures. Arch Surg. 1996;131(6):593-597.
130. Andreollo NA, Earlam RJ. Heller's myotomy for achalasia: is an added anti-reflux procedure necessary? Br J Surg. 1987;74(9): 765-769.
131. Pellegrini CA. Impact and evolution of minimally invasive techniques in the treatment of achalasia. Surg Endosc. 1997;11(1): 1-2.
132. Lobello R, Edwards DA, Gummer JW, et al. The anti-reflux mechanism after cardiomyotomy. Thorax. 1978;33(5):569-573.
133. Ellis FH Jr, Crozier RE, Watkins E Jr. Operation for esophageal achalasia. Results of esophagomyotomy without an antireflux operation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1984;88(3):344-351.
134. Richards WO, Clements RH, Wang PC, et al. Prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux after laparoscopic Heller myotomy. Surg Endosc. 1999;13(10):1010-1014.
135. Swanstrom LL, Pennings J. Laparoscopic esophagomyotomy for achalasia. Surg Endosc. 1995;9(3):286-290.
136. Hunter JG, Richardson WS. Surgical management of achalasia. Surg Clin North Am. 1997;77(5):993-1015.
137. Streitz JM Jr, Ellis FH Jr, Williamson WA, et al. Objective assessment of gastroesophageal reflux after short esophagomyotomy for achalasia with the use of manometry and pH monitoring. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1996;111(1):107-112.
138. Patti MG, Arcerito M, Tong J, et al. Importance of Preoperative and Postoperative pH Monitoring in Patients With Esophageal Achalasia. J Gastrointest Surg. 1997;1(6):505-510.
139. Crookes PF, Corkill S, DeMeester TR. Gastroesophageal reflux in achalasia. When is reflux really reflux? Dig Dis Sci. 1997;42 (7):1354-1361.
140. Bonavina L, Nosadini A, Bardini R, et al. Primary treatment of esophageal achalasia. Long-term results of myotomy and Dor fundoplication. Arch Surg. 1992;127(2):222-226.
141. Pechlivanides G, Chrysos E, Athanasakis E, et al. Laparoscopic Heller cardiomyotomy and Dor fundoplication for esophageal achalasia: possible factors predicting outcome. Arch Surg. 2001;136(11):1240-1243.
142. Donahue PE, Horgan S, Liu KJ, et al. Floppy Dor fundoplication after esophagocardiomyotomy for achalasia. Surgery. 2002;132(4):716-722.
143. Topart P, Deschamps C, Taillefer R, et al. Long-term effect of total fundoplication on the myotomized esophagus. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992;54(6):1046-1051.
144. Henderson RD, Ryder DE. Reflux control following myotomy in diffuse esophageal spasm. Ann Thorac Surg. 1982;34(3):230-236.
145. Veiga-Fernandes F, Pinheiro MF. Didia-Guerreiro. Cardiomyotomy associated with antireflux surgery in the treatment of achalasia. World J Surg. 1981;5(5):697-702.
146. Kumar V, Shimi SM, Cuschieri A. Does laparoscopic cardiomyotomy require an antireflux procedure? Endoscopy. 1998;30(1): 8-11.
147. Donahue PE, Schlesinger PK, Sluss KF, et al. Esophagocardiomyotomy - floppy Nissen fundoplication effectively treats achalasia without causing esophageal obstruction. Surgery 1994;116(4).
148. Wang PC, Sharp KW, Holzman MD, et al. The outcome of laparoscopic Heller myotomy without antireflux procedure in patients with achalasia. Am Surg. 1998;64(6):515-520.
149. Bloomston M, Rosemurgy AS. Selective application of fundoplication during laparoscopic heller myotomy ensures favorable outcomes. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2002;12(5):309-315.
150. Suarez J, Mearin F, Boque R, et al. Laparoscopic myotomy vs endoscopic dilation in the treatment of achalasia. Surg Endosc. 2002;16(1):75-77.
151. Andrews CN, Anvari M, Dobranowski J. Laparoscopic Heller's myotomy or botulinum toxin injection for management of esophageal achalasia. Patient choice and treatment outcomes. Surg Endosc. 1999;13(8):742-746.
152. Beckingham IJ, Callanan M, Louw JA, et al. Laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia after failed balloon dilatation. Surg Endosc. 1999;13(5):493-496.
153. Dolan K, Zafirellis K, Fountoulakis A, et al. Does pneumatic dilatation affect the outcome of laparoscopic cardiomyotomy? Surg Endosc. 2002;16(1):84-87.
154. Miller DL, Allen MS, Trastek VF, et al. Esophageal resection for recurrent achalasia. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995;60(4):922-925.
155. Floch NR, Hinder RA, Klingler Pj et al. Is laparoscopic reoperation for failed antireflux surgery feasible? Arch Surg. 1999;134 (7):733-737.
156. Gorecki PJ, Hinder RA, Libbey JS, et al. Redo laparoscopic surgery for achalasia. Surg Endosc. 2002;16(5):772-776.
157. Shah J, Rockall T, Darzi A. Robot-assisted laparoscopic Heller's cardiomyotomy. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2002;12(1):30-32.