Hunter-Gatherer Land Use Patterns in Later Stone Age East Africa

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 165-200

  Kusimba, Sibel Barut ^a  

^a FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0043100089     PISSN: 02784165     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jaar.1998.0335     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. Ambrose Stanley H. Chronology of the Later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science. 25:1998;377-392.
2. Ambrose Stanley H., Lorenz Karl. Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa. The emergence of modern humans: An archaeological perspective. 1990;Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca. p. 3-33.
3. Andrefsky William. Raw material availability and the organization of technology. American Antiquity. 59:1994;21-34.
4. Avery D. M. Physical environment and site choice in South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science. 22:1995;343-353.
5. Bamforth Douglas. Technological efficiency and tool curation. American Antiquity. 51:1986;38-50.
6. Barham Lawrence. The bipolar technique in Southern Africa: A replication experiment. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 42:1987;45-50.
7. Barnard Alan. Basarwa settlement patterns in the Ghanzi ranching area. Botswana Notes and Records. 12:1980;137-148.
8. Barnard Alan. Hunters and herders of southern Africa: A comparative ethnography of the Khoisan peoples. 1992;Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
9. Barut Sibel. Middle and Later Stone Age lithic technology and land use in East African savannas. African Archaeological Review. 12:1994;44-70.
10. Barut Sibel. Later stone age lithic raw material use at Lukenya Hill, Kenya. 1997;University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignDepartment of Anthropology.
11. Bettinger Robert L., Baumhoff M. A. The Numic spread: Great Basin cultures in competition. American Antiquity. 47:1982;485-503.
12. Binford L. R., O'Connell J. An Alyawara day: The stone quarry. Journal of Anthropological Research. 40:1984;406-432.
13. Blackburn Roderick. In the land of milk and honey: Okiek adaptations to their forests and neighbors. Leacock E., Lee R. B. Politics and history in band societies. 1982;283-305 Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
14. Blumenschine Robert. Characteristics of an early hominid scavenging niche. Current Anthropology. 28:1987;383-407.
15. Bonnefille R. The Kashiru sequence (Burundi): Paleoclimatic implications for the last 40,000 years B.P. in tropical Africa. Quaternary Research. 30:1988;19-35.
16. Bonnefille Raymonde, Roeland J., Gruot J. Temperature and rainfall estimates for the past 40,000 years in equatorial Africa. Nature. 346:1990;347-349.
17. Bourliere Francois, Hadley M. Present-day savannas: An overview. Ecosystems of the world volume 13: Tropical savannas. 1983;Elsevier, New York.
18. Bourliere Francois, Hadley M. Present-day savannas: An overview. Ecosystems of the world volume 13: Tropical savannas. 1983;Elsevier, New York.
19. Bower John. The Pastoral Neolithic of East Africa. Journal of World Prehistory. 5:1991;49-82.
20. Brooks Alison S. San land use patterns, past and present: Implications for southern African prehistory. Hall M., Avery G., Avery D. M., Wilson M. L., Humphreys A. J. B. Frontiers: Southern African archaeology today. 1984;40-52.
21. Brooks Alison S., Robertshaw Peter. The Glacial Maximum in tropical Africa: 22,000-12,000 B.P. Gamble C., Soffer O. The world at 18,000 B.P., Volume 2, low latitudes. 1990;120-169 Unwyn Hyman, London.
22. Brooks Alison S., Smith C. Ishango revisited: New age determinations and cultural interpretations. African Archaeological Review. 5:1987;65-78.
23. Burch E. S. The caribou/wild reindeer as a human resource. American Antiquity. 37:1972;339-368.
24. Butzer K. W., Isaac G. L., Richardson J. L., Washbourn-Kamau C. Radiocarbon dating of East African lake levels. Science. 175:1972;1069-1076.
25. Cachel S. Dietary shifts and the European Upper Paleolithic transition. Current Anthropology. 38:1997;579-603.
26. Capaldo Salvatore D., Peters Charles R. Skeletal inventories from wildebeest drownings at lakes Masek and Ndutu in the Serengeti ecosystem of Tanzania. Journal of Archaeological Science. 22:1995;385-408.
27. Cashdan E. A. Territoriality among human foragers: Ecological models and an application to four bushman groups. Current Anthropology. 24:1983;47-66.
28. Clapperton C. M. Nature of environmental changes in South American at the Last Glacial Maximum. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 101:1993;189-208.
29. Clark J. D. The prehistory of Africa. 1970;Thames and Hudson, London.
30. Clark J. D. Kalambo Falls prehistoric site II: The later prehistoric cultures. 1974;Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
31. Clark J. D. Interpretations of prehistoric technology from ancient Egyptian and other sources. II. Paléorient. 3:1977;127-150.
32. Clark J. D. Early human occupation of African savanna environments. Harris D. R. Human ecology in savanna environments. 1980;41-71 Academic Press, London.
33. Clark J. D., Van Zinderren Bakker E. M. Prehistoric culture and Pleistocene vegetation at Kalambo Falls, northern Rhodesia. Nature. 201:1964;971-975.
34. Clark J. D., Phillips J. L., Staley P. S. Interpretations of prehistoric technology from ancient Egyptian and other sources, Part I. Paléorient. 2:1976;323-388.
35. Coetzee J. A. Pollen analytical studies in eastern and southern Africa. Paleoecology of Africa. 3:1967;1-146.
36. Cooke C. K. The industries of the Upper Pleistocene in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwea. 1:1984;23-27.
37. Deacon H. Where hunters gathered: A study of Holocene stone age people in the eastern Cape. 1976;South African Archaeological Survey, Claremont.
38. Deacon H. Planting an idea: An archaeology of stone age gatherers in South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 48:1993;86-93.
39. Deacon H. Two late Pleistocene-Holocene archaeological depositories from the southern Cape, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 50:1995;121-131.
40. Deacon H. Correlation of palaeoenvironmental data from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene deposits at Boomplaas Cave, southern Cape. Vogel J. C. Late Cainozoic paleoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere. 1984;339-352 A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
41. Deacon J. Later Stone Age people and their descendants in Southern Africa. Klein R. G. Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments. 1984;221-328 A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
42. Deacon J., Lancaster N. Late Quaternary paleoenvironments of southern Africa. 1988;Oxford Science Publications, Oxford.
43. Dyson-Hudson N., Smith Eric. Human territoriality: An ecological assessment. American Anthropologist. 80:1978;21-41.
44. East R. Rainfall, soil nutrient status, and biomass of large African savanna mammals. African Journal of Ecology. 22:1984;245-270.
45. Elenga H., Schwartz D., Vincens A. Pollen evidence of late Quaternary vegetation and inferred climate change in Congo. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology. 109:1994;345-356.
46. Elenga H., Vincens A., Schwartz D. Presence d'éléments forestiers montagnards sur les plateaux Batéké (Congo) au Pléistocène Supérieur: Nouvelles données palynologiques. Paleoecology of Africa. 22:1991;239-252.
47. Fratkin E. Surviving drought and development: Ariaal pastoralists of northern Kenya. 1991;Westview Press, Boulder.
48. Fratkin E., Smith K. Labor, livestock, and land: The organization of pastoral production. Fratkin E., Galvin K., Roth E. African pastoralist systems: An integrated approach. 1994;91-112 Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder.
49. Gamble C. The Palaeolithic settlement of Europe. 1986;Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
50. Gasse F., Street F. A. Late Quaternary lake-level fluctuations in environments of the northern Rift Valley and Afar regions (Ethiopia and Djibouti). Paleogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 24:1978;279-325.
51. Gifford D. P., Isaac G. L., Nelson C. M. Evidence for predation and pastoralism at prolonged drift: A Pastoral Neolithic site in Kenya. Azania. 15:1980;57-100.
52. Gould R., Saggers S. Lithic procurement in central Australia: A closer look at Binford's idea of embeddedness in Archaeology. American Antiquity. 50:1985;117-135.
53. Gramly R. M. Upper Pleistocene archaeological occurrences at site GvJm22, Lukenya Hill, Kenya. Man. 11:1976;319-344.
54. Haberyan K. A., Hecky R. E. The Late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy and palaeolimnology of lakes Kivu and Tanganyika. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 61:1987;169-197.
55. Hall J. B. Ecology of a key African multipurpose tree species,Balanites Aegyptiaca. Forest Ecology and Management. 50:1992;1-30.
56. Hamilton A. C. Environmental history of East Africa: A study of the Quaternary. 1982;Academic Press, New York.
57. Hamilton A. C. Vegetation and climate of Mt. Elgon during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Paleoecology of Africa. 18:1987;283-304.
58. Harlan J. The origins of indigenous African agriculture. Clark J. Desmond. The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 1, from the earliest times to ca. 500 BC. 1982;624-657 Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
59. Harpending Henry, Davis S. Some implications for hunter-gatherer ecology derived from the spatial structure of resources. World Archaeology. 8:1977;275-286.
60. Harris David. Human ecology in savanna environments. 1980;Academic Press, London.
61. Hastenrath S., Kutzbach J. E. Palaeoclimatic estimates from water and energy budgets of East African lakes. Quaternary Research. 19:1983;141-153.
62. Headland T. N., Reid L. A. Hunter-gatherers and their neighbors from prehistory to the present. Current Anthropology. 30:1989;43-66.
63. Heinz H. J. Territoriality among the bushmen in general and the !Ko in particular. Anthropos. 67:1972;405-416.
64. Heinz H. J. The nexus complex among the !Xo bushmen of Botswana. Anthropos. 74:1979;465-480.
65. Hitchcock R. Modeling Kalahari hunter-gatherer subsistence and settlement systems: Implications for development policy and land use planning. Anthropos. 1989;447-462.
66. Hladik A. Structure and production of the rain forest. Hladik C. M., Bahuchet S., de Garine I. Food and nutrition in the African rain forest. 1990;8-13 UNESCO, Paris.
67. Hladik C. M., Hladik A. Food resources of the rain forest. Hladik C. M., Bahuchet S., de Garine I. Food and nutrition in the African rain forest. 1990;14-18 UNESCO, Paris.
68. Inskeep R. The age of the Kondoa rock paintings in the light of recent excavations at Kisese II rock shelter. Mortelmans G., Nenquin J. Actes du cinquieme congrès panafricain de préhistoire et de l'etude du Quaternaire. 1962;249-256 Musée Royale De L'Afrique Centrale (Tervuren), Brussels.
69. Iriondo M. A probable scenario for a dry climate in Central Amazonia during the late Quaternary. Quaternary International. 21:1994;121-128.
70. Isaac G. L., Merrick H. V., Nelson C. M. Stratigraphic and archaeological studies in the Lake Nakuru basin, Kenya. Paleoecology of Africa. 6:1972;225-232.
71. Jacobson L. Hunting versus gathering in an arid ecosystem: The evidence from the Namib Desert. Hall M., Avery G., Avery D. M., Wilson M. L., Humphreys A. J. B. Frontiers: Southern African archaeology today. 1984;75-79.
72. Johnsen S. J. Irregular glacial interstadials recorded in a New Greenland ice core. Nature. 359:1992;311-313.
73. Kabuye C. H. S. Edible roots from wild plants in arid and semi-arid Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments. 11:1986;65-73.
74. Kelly R. Mobility/sedentism: Concepts, archaeological measures, and effects. Annual Review of Anthropology. 21:1992;43-66.
75. Klein Richard G. A preliminary report on the larger mammals from Boomplaas stone age cave site, Cango Valley, Oudsthoorn District, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 33:1978;66-75.
76. Klein Richard G. Environmental and ecological implications of large mammals from Upper Pleistocene and Holocene sites in southern Africa. Annals of the South African Museum. 81:1980;223-283.
77. Klein Richard G. Biological and behavioral perspectives on modern human origins in Southern Africa. Mellars P., Stringer C. The human revolution: Behavioral and biological perspectives on the origin of modern humans. 1989;529-546 Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton.
78. Klein Richard G. The archaeology of modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology. 1:1992;5-20.
79. Kortlandt Alan. The use of stone tools By wild-living chimpanzees and earliest hominids. Journal of Human Evolution. 15:1986;77-132.
80. Koslowski J. K. Raw material procurement in the Upper Paleolithic of Central Europe. Montet-White A., Holen S. Raw material economies among prehistoric hunter-gatherers. 1991;187-196 University of Kansas Printing ServiceUniversity of Kansas Publications in Anthropology Volume 19, Lawrence.
81. Kuhn Steven L. A formal approach to the design and assembly of mobile toolkits. American Antiquity. 59:1994;426-442.
82. Laden Gregory T. Ethnoarchaeology and land use ecology of the Efe (pygmies) of the Ituri Rain Forest, Zaire: A behavioral ecological study of land use patterns and foraging behavior. 1992;Harvard UniversityDepartment of Anthropology.
83. Lee Richard B. !Kung spatial organization: An ecological and historical perspective. Lee R. B., Devore I. Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the San and their neighbors. 1976;73-97 Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.
84. Lee Richard B. The !Kung San: Men, women, and work in a foraging society. 1979;Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
85. Livingstone D. A. A 22,000-year pollen record from the plateau of Zambia. Limnology and Oceanography. 6:1971;349-356.
86. Mabulla A. Z. P. Later Stone Age lithic technology and land use in the Eyasi Basin, Tanzania. 1996;University of FloridaAnthropology Department.
87. Malaisse F., Parent G. Edible wild vegetable products in the Zambezian woodland area: A nutritional and ecological approach. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 18:1985;43-82.
88. Manega Paul. Geochronology, geochemistry and isotopic study of the Plio-Pleistocene hominid sites and the Ngorongoro volcanic highland in Northern Tanzania. 1993;University of ColoradoDepartment of Geology, Boulder.
89. Marean Curtis. Late Quaternary paleoenvironments and faunal exploitation in East Africa. 1990;University of CaliforniaDepartment of Anthropology, Berkeley.
90. Marean Curtis. Implications of Late Quaternary mammalian fauna from Lukenya Hill (South-Central Kenya) for paleoenvironmental change and faunal extinctions. Quaternary Research. 37:1992a;239-255.
91. Marean Curtis. Hunter to herder: Large mammal remains from the hunter-gatherer occupation at Enkapune ya Muto rockshelter, Central Rift, Kenya. African Archaeological Review. 10:1992b;65-127.
92. Marean Curtis. Hunter-gatherer foraging strategies in tropical grasslands: Model building and testing in the East African Middle and Later Stone Age. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 16:1997;189-225.
93. Marean Curtis, Gifford-Gonzalez Diane. Late Quaternary extinct ungulates of East Africa and paleoenvironmental implications. Nature. 350:1991;418-420.
94. Marean, C. W. C. L. Ehrhart, N. Mudida, 1990, Late Quaternary mammalian fauna in eastern Africa: Its relevance for environmental change and faunal extinctions.
95. Marshall F. Archaeological perspectives on East African pastoralism. Fratkin E., Galvin K., Roth E. African pastoralist systems: An integrated approach. 1994;17-44 Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder.
96. Martinson D. G. Age dating and the orbital theory of the ice ages: Development of a high-resolution 1 to 300,000-year chronostratigraphy. Quaternary Research. 27:1987;1-29.
97. Masao F. T. On possible use of unshaped flakes: An ethnohistorical approach from central Tanzania. Ethnos. 47:1982;262-270.
98. Mehlman M. J. Later Quaternary archaeological sequences in northern Tanzania. 1989;University of IllinoisAnthropology Department.
99. Merrick H. V. Change in Later Pleistocene lithic industries in eastern Africa. 1975;University of CaliforniaAnthropology Department, Berkeley.
100. Merrick H. V., Brown F. H. Obsidian sources and patterns of source utilization in Kenya and northern Tanzania: Some initial findings. African Archaeological Review. 2:1984a;129-152.
101. Merrick H. V., Brown F. H. Rapid chemical characterization of obsidian artifacts by electron microprobe analysis. Archaeometry. 4:1984b;230-236.
102. Merrick H. V., Brown F. H., Connelly M. Sources of the obsidian at Ngamuriak and other southwestern Kenyan sites. Robertshaw P. Early pastoralists of southwestern Kenya. 1990;173-181 British Institute in Eastern Africa Memoir 11, Nairobi.
103. Merrick H. V., Brown F. H., Nash W. P. Use and movement of obsidian in the Early and Middle Stone Ages of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Childs S. T. Society, culture, and technology in Africa. 1994;29-44 MASCA, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.
104. Miller C. The Nachikufan industries of the Later Stone Age in Zambia. 1969;University of CaliforniaAnthropology Department, Berkeley.
105. Miller C. Lukenya Hill, GvJm46, excavation report. Nyame Akuma. 14:1979;31-34.
106. Mitchell P. Human adaptation in southern Africa during the Last Glacial Maximum. Bower J., Lubell D. Prehistoric cultures and environments in the Late Quaternary of Africa. 1988;163-196.
107. Mitchell, P. 1992, Last Glacial Maximum hunter-gatherers in southern Africa as an example of a high-technology foraging system.
108. Mitchell P. Prehistoric exchange and interaction in southeastern southern Africa: Marine shells and ostrich eggshell. African Archaeological Review. 13:1996;35-76.
109. Moss, E. H. 1983, The functional analysis of flint implements: Pincevent and Pont D'Ambon, two case studies from the French Paleolithic.
110. Musonda F. B. Late Pleistocene and Holocene microlithic industries from the Lusemfwa basin, Zambia. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 39:1984;24-36.
111. Mwajumwa L. B. S., Kahangi E. M., Mungi J. K. The prevalence and nutritional value of some Kenyan indigenous leafy vegetables from three locations of Machakos District. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 26:1991;275-280.
112. Nelson C. M. The Elmenteitan lithic industry. Leakey R. E., Ogot B. A. Proceedings of the Eighth Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies. 1980;275-278 TILLMIAP, Nairobi.
113. Nelson C. M., Mengich J. K. Early development of pastoral adaptation in the central highlands of Kenya. Krzyzaniak L. Origins and development of food-producing cultures in northeast Africa. 1984;481-487 Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan.
114. Nelson M. C. The study of technological organization. Schiffer M. B. Advances in archaeological method and theory, Volume 3. 1992;57-100 Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson.
115. Ng'weno F. Seasonal wetlands in Nairobi. Crafter S. A., Njuguna S. G., Howard G. W. Wetlands of Kenya: Proceedings of the KWWG seminar on wetlands of Kenya, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, 3-5 July 1991. 1992;55-64 International Union For Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland.
116. Odell G. H. The morphological express at function junction: Searching for meaning in lithic tool types. Journal of Anthropological Research. 37:1981;319-342.
117. Odell G. H., Cowan F. Experiments with spears and arrows on animal targets. Journal of Field Archaeology. 13:1986;195-212.
118. Opperman H. A 22,000-year-old Middle Stone Age camp site with plant food remains from the northeastern Cape. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 45:1990;93-99.
119. Pagezy H. Seasonal variation in food supply in the Lake Tumba region of Zaire. Hladik C. M., Bahuchet S., de Garine I. Food and nutrition in the African rain forest. 1990;37-44 UNESCO, Paris.
120. Parry William, Kelly Robert. Expedient core technology and sedentism. Johnson J., Morrow C. The organization of core technology. 1987;285-304 Westview Press, Boulder.
121. Pennycuick L. Movements of the migratory wildebeest population in the Serengeti area between 1960 and 1973. East African Wildlife Journal. 13:1975;65-87.
122. Perrott R. A., Street-Perrott F. A. New evidence for a late Pleistocene wet phase in northern intertropical Africa. Paleoecology of Africa. 14:1982;57-75.
123. Peters Charles R. Nut-like oil seeds: Food for monkeys, chimpanzees, humans, and probably ape-men. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 73:1987;333-363.
124. Peters Charles R., O'Brien E. M., Box E. O. Plant types and seasonality of wild plant foods from Tanzania to southeastern Africa: Resource models of the natural environment. Journal of Human Evolution. 13:1984;397-414.
125. Peters J. Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers at Ishango (eastern Zaire): The faunal evidence. Revue de Paléobiologie. 9:1990;73-112.
126. Phillipson D. W. The prehistory of eastern Zambia. 1976;The British Institute in Eastern Africa, Memoir Number 6, Nairobi.
127. Phillipson L. Patterns of edge damage on the Late Stone Age industry of Chiwempula, Zambia. Zambia Museums Journal. 1:1970;40-75.
128. Reader J. Africa: A biography of the continent. 1997;Hamish Hamilton, London.
129. Rensink E., Koen J., Spieksma A. Pattern of raw material distribution in the Upper Pleistocene of northwestern and Central Europe. Montet-White A., Holen S. Raw material economies among prehistoric hunter-gatherers. 1991;141-159 University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology 19, Lawrence.
130. Richardson J. L., Dussinger R. A. Paleolimnology of mid-elevation lakes in the Kenya Rift Valley. Hydrobiologia. 143:1986;167-174.
131. Richardson J. L., Richardson A. E. The history of an east African rift lake and its climatic implications. Ecological Monographs. 42:1972;499-534.
132. Robbins Lawrence. The depression site: A stone age sequence in the northwest Kalahari Desert, Botswana. National Geographic Research. 6:1990;329-338.
133. Robbins L. R., McFarlin S. A., Bower J. L., Hoffman A. E. Rangi: A Late Stone Age site in Karamoja. Azania. 12:1977;209-233.
134. Robbins L. R., Murphy M., Stewart K., Campbell A., Brook G. Barbed bone points, paleoenvironment, and the antiquity of fish exploitation in the Kalahari Desert, Botswana. Journal of Field Archaeology. 21:1994;257-264.
135. Robbins L. Paleoenvironment and archaeology of Drotsky's Cave: Western Kalahari Desert, Botswana. Journal of Archaeological Science. 23:1996;7-22.
136. Rognon P., Williams M. A. J. Late Quaternary climatic changes in Australia and North Africa: A preliminary interpretation. Palaegeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 21:1977;285-327.
137. Schaller G. B., Lowther G. R. The relevance of carnivore behavior to the study of early hominids. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 25:1969;307-341.
138. Seeman M. Intercluster lithic patterning at Nobles Pond: A case fordisembedded. American Antiquity. 59:1994;273-288.
139. Shaw P. A., Thomas D. S. G. The Quaternary paleoenvironmental history of the Kalahari, Southern Africa. Journal of Arid Environments. 32:1996;9-22.
140. Shelley P. H. A geoarchaeological approach to the analysis of secondary lithic deposits. Geoarchaeology. 8:1993;59-72.
141. Shott M. Bipolar industries: Ethnographic evidence and archaeological implications. North American Archaeologist. 10:1989;1-24.
142. Siegel P. Edge angle as a functional indicator: A test. Lithic Technology. 14:1985;90-94.
143. Sinclair A. R. E. The resource limitation of trophic levels in tropical grassland ecosystems. Journal of Animal Ecology. 44:1975;497-520.
144. Soffer O. The Upper Paleolithic of the Central Russian Plain. 1985;Academic Press, New York.
145. Soffer O. Lithics and lifeways: The diversity in raw material procurement and settlement systems on the East European Plain. Montet-White A., Holen S. Raw material economies among prehistoric hunter-gatherers. 1991;221-250 University of Kansas Publications in Anthropology 19, Lawrence.
146. Speth John. Early hominid subsistence strategies in seasonal habitats. Journal of Archaeological Science. 14:1987;13-29.
147. Speth John, Spielmann Katharine. Energy source, protein metabolism, and hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2:1983;1-31.
148. Stelfox J. B. Effects of livestock enclosures (bomas) on the vegetation of the Athi Plains, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 24:1986;41-45.
149. Steyn H. P. Southern Kalahari San subsistence ecology: A reconstruction. South African Archaeological Bulletin. 40:1984;117-124.
150. Street F. A., Grove A. T. Environmental and climatic implications of Late Quaternary lake-level fluctuations in Africa. Nature. 261:1976;285-390.
151. Taylor R. E. Radiocarbon dating: An archaeological perspective. 1987;Academic Press, New York.
152. Van Neer W. Contribution to the archaeozoology of Central Africa. 1989.
153. Van Zinderen Bakker E. M. The Pleistocene vegetation and climate of the basin. Clark J. D. Kalambo Falls prehistoric site, volume I: The geology, palaeoecology and detailed stratigraphy of the excavations. 1969;57-84 Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
154. Vincens A. Végétation et climat dans le bassin sud-Tanganyika entre 25,000 et 9,000 B.P.: Nouvelles donnees palynologiques. Paleoecology of Africa. 22:1992;253-263.
155. Vincent A. S. Wild tubers as a harvestable resource in the East African savannas: Ecological and ethnographic studies. 1985;University of California, Berkeley.
156. Vogel J. C. (editor). Late Cainozoic paleoclimates of the Southern Hemisphere. 1984;A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
157. Wadley L. The Pleistocene Later Stone Age south of the Limpopo River. Journal of World Prehistory. 7:1993;243-296.
158. Walker N. Zimbabwe at 18,000 B.P. Gamble C., Soffer O. The world at 18,000 B.P., volume 2, low latitudes. 1990;206-213 Unwyn Hyman, London.
159. Walker N. Late Pleistocene and Holocene hunter-gatherers of the Matopos: An archaeological study of change and continuity in Zimbabwe. 1995;Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, Uppsala.
160. White F. The vegetation of Africa: A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. 1983;UNESCO, Paris.
161. Wiessner P. Risk, reciprocity, and social influence on !Kung San economies. Leacock E., Lee R. B. Politics and history in band societies. 1982;61-84 Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
162. Wiessner P. Kung San networks in a generational perspective. Biesele M., Gordon R., Lee R. The past and future of !Kung ethnography: Critical reflections and symbolic perspectives, essays in honour of Lorna Marshall. 1986;103-136 Helmut Buske, Hamburg.
163. Wilmsen E. M. Land filled with flies: A political economy of the Kalahari. 1989;Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
164. Winterhalder B. Optimal foraging theory and hunter-gatherer research in anthropology: Theory and models. Winterhalder B., Smith E. Hunter-gatherer foraging strategies. 1981;13-65 Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
165. Woodburn John. Stability and flexibility in Hadza residential groupings. Lee R., Devore I. Man the hunter. 1968;103-110 Aldine, New York.
166. Woodburn John. Ecology, nomadic movement, and the composition of the local group among hunters and gatherers. Ucko P., Tringham R., Dimbleby G. Man, settlement, and urbanism, 1972;193-206 Duckworth, London.
167. Yellen J. E., Harpending H. Hunter-gatherer populations and archaeological inference. World Archaeology. 4:1972;244-253.