Focus on political socialization: Continuity and change in political socialization in Poland

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 44-70

  Slomczynski, Kazimierz M ^a   Shabad, Goldie ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0043099721     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447415     Document Type: Review

References (70)

1. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
2. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
3. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
4. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
5. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
6. For arguments regarding the need to develop a civic culture at the mass level for democratic stability, see Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969); Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and Ideology in American Politics," American Political Science Review 58, no. 2 (June 1964): 361-82; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Basis of Agreement and Disagreement," Journal of Politics 22, no. 2 (May 1964): 276-94. These arguments have been reiterated in the context of Eastern Europe. See, e.g., various papers in Gyorgy Csepeli, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., State and Citizen: Studies on Political Socialization in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1993); Romuald Holly, ed., Political Consciousness and Civic Education during the Transformation of the System (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Political Studies, 1994); Gyorgy Csepeli, Daniel German, Laszlo Keri, and Istvan Stumpf, eds., From Subject to Citizen (Budapest: Hungarian Center for Political Education, 1994).
7. Wladyslaw W. Adamski, ed., Societal Conflict and Systemic Change (Warsaw: IFiS [The Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Science] Publishers, 1993).
8. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and Its Critics (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, 1989).
9. Elemer Hankiss, East European Alternatives (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp. 176-88, table 7.1.
10. For a good overview of research linking psychological functioning or personality to political orientations, see Fred I. Greenstein, "Personality and Politics," in Handbook of Political Science, ed. Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, vol. 2 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), pp. 1-92; see also Robert Lane, Practical Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does (New York: Free Press, 1962); Paul M. Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
11. For a good overview of research linking psychological functioning or personality to political orientations, see Fred I. Greenstein, "Personality and Politics," in Handbook of Political Science, ed. Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, vol. 2 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), pp. 1-92; see also Robert Lane, Practical Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does (New York: Free Press, 1962); Paul M. Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
12. For a good overview of research linking psychological functioning or personality to political orientations, see Fred I. Greenstein, "Personality and Politics," in Handbook of Political Science, ed. Fred I. Greenstein and Nelson W. Polsby, vol. 2 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), pp. 1-92; see also Robert Lane, Practical Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does (New York: Free Press, 1962); Paul M. Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
13. Philip E. Converse, "The Nature of Belief System in Mass Publics," in Ideology and Discontent, ed. David E. Apter (New York: Free Press, 1964), pp. 206-61.
14. Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, Krystyna Janicka, Bogdan W. Mach, and Wojciech Zaborowski, "Struktura spoleczna i psychiczne funkcjonowanie jednostki w warunkach zmiany spolecznej" (Social structure and individual's psychological functioning under conditions of social change) (Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Warsaw, 1994, mimeographed).
15. Melvin L. Kohn and Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, Social Structure and Self-Direction: A Comparative Analysis of the United States and Poland, ed. with a new afterword (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993).
16. The fieldwork was conducted by two Polish social scientists, Dr. Marta Zahorska-Bugaj and Dr. Waldemar Kozlowski. The questionnaire was pretested by using the method of "critical respondents," which involved intensive interviewing of a small number of experienced fieldworkers. Since most of the items in our questionnaire were identical to those in other studies, we limited the pretesting to five intensive interviews. The questions were assessed according to two criteria: whether they were self-explanatory with respect to substance, and whether the answers to them fit the coding scheme. About 15 percent of the initial questions were eliminated and about 10 percent were modified as a result of this assessment. The prefinal questionnaire, containing about 100 questions in its students' and teachers' versions, was then reviewed by education experts, psychologists, and fieldwork methodologists. Coded data were transcribed onto a computer and tested for logical consistency. Less than 1 percent of all information had to be corrected, usually by declaring it "missing data." The final data sets, STUDENTS 1994 and TEACHERS 1994, exist in SPSS format and are available from the authors. The overview of results is presented in Goldie Shabad and Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, "Political Socialization, Public Policy and Civic Education: A Research Program" (paper prepared for Challenges in Political Socialization of Children and Youth in Poland, a symposium sponsored by the Mershon Center at the Ohio State University and organized by the Institute of Psychology and the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Jablonna near Warsaw, March 17-19, 1995).
17. For a detailed description of the data, see Bogdan W. Mach, "Self-Direction and Authoritarianism under Conditions of Radical Systemic Change: Intergenerational Transmission of Values and Orientations in Poland," Polish Sociological Review 4 (Autumn-Winter 1994): 1-11. Actually, in each triad one parent - mother or father - was interviewed in 1992; a child and the other parent was interviewed in 1993. Each parent interviewed in 1992 was drawn from a national sample of the urban population in Poland, aged 19-65. All face-to-face interviews were conducted in respondents' homes by well-trained interviewers from the Center of Sociological Research at the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
18. Kohn and Slomczynski, pp. 25-30. Interviews of the three persons - father, mother, and their child - took place in 1978-80. The selection of respondents and the method of interviewing were the same in both triad studies, conducted in 1978-80 and 1992-93.
19. Henryk Domanski and Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, Social Changes in Poland, 1987-1993: A Follow-Up Study, Machine Readable Codebook (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1994). This study consists of a survey conducted on a national sample of the adult population in Poland. Interviewers from the Center of Sociological Research at the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Sciences approached all respondents in their homes.
20. Prothro and Grigg (n. 1 above); McClosky (n. 1 above).
21. Kenneth A. Bollen, Structural Equations with Latent Variables (New York: Wiley, 1989), pp. 206-23. We should note that, when applying usual factor-analytic criteria, our scales show a low or moderate degree of reliability. For students, the value of Cronbach alpha equals .351 for the democracy index and .210 for the market index. In the case of teachers and parents, the corresponding values are higher but do not exceed .526. However, these estimates provide a lower bound for the reliability of the simple sum of congeneric measures. There is no reason to assume that our measures are parallel or tau-equivalent. Thus, in practical terms the reliability of our scales must be higher.
22. For research linking personality characteristics to democratic beliefs via the capacity for social learning, See Sniderman (n. 5 above). For cross-national research assessing intergenerational differences in commitment to democratic norms due to differences in the capacity for social learning during periods of regime change, see James L. Gibson and Raymond M. Duch, "Elitist Theory and Political Tolerance in Western Europe," Political Behavior 13, no. 3 (September 1991): 191-212.
23. Commenting on this difference, we should point out that in Polish answering questions expressed in a negative form does not seem to be more difficult in the case of students than in the case of adults. Since in Polish disagreeing with a statement containing a negation is well suited to everyday language, even elementary school students use this form frequently. In our study, for some questions expressed in a negative form more students than teachers responded in disagreement with those items. Thus, we assume that the difference between students and adults in answering questions pertaining to democracy does not result from item formulation.
24. Kohn and Slomczynski.
25. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
26. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
27. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
28. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
29. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
30. For a general discussion of authoritarianism, see W. F. Stone, G. Lederer, and R. Christie, eds., Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today (New York: Springer, 1993). The classical statement appears in Theodore W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel L. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanfor, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950); see also Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda, eds., Studies in the Scope and Method of "The Authoritarian Personality" (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954). A comparison of authoritarianism in North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and the non-West can be found in Jos D. Meloen, Russel Farnen, and Dan German, "Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Symbolic Political Leadership in the New World Order," in Holly, ed. (n. 1 above), pp. 255-81. The measurement issues of authoritarian-conservatism related to the specific Polish context are discussed in Joanne Miller, Kazimierz M. Slomczynski, and Ronald J. Schoenberg, "Assessing Comparability of Measurement in Cross-national Research: Authoritarian-Conservatism in Different Sociocultural Settings," Social Psychology Quarterly 44, no. 3 (1981): 178-91; see also Jadwiga Koralewicz, "Authoritarianism and Confidence in Political Leaders and Institutions," in Adamski, ed. (n. 2 above).
31. Kohn and Slomczynski (n. 8 above); Slomczynski et al. (n. 7 above).
32. Melvin L. Kohn, Class and Conformity: A Study in Values (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1969); Melvin L. Kohn and Carmi Schooler, Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1983); see also Duane F. Alwin and David J. Jackson, "The Statistical Analysis of Kohn's Measure of Parental Values," in Systems under Indirect Observation: Causality, Structure, and Prediction, ed. Karl G. Joreskog and H. O. A. Wald (New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1980), pp. 197-223.
33. Melvin L. Kohn, Class and Conformity: A Study in Values (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1969); Melvin L. Kohn and Carmi Schooler, Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1983); see also Duane F. Alwin and David J. Jackson, "The Statistical Analysis of Kohn's Measure of Parental Values," in Systems under Indirect Observation: Causality, Structure, and Prediction, ed. Karl G. Joreskog and H. O. A. Wald (New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1980), pp. 197-223.
34. Melvin L. Kohn, Class and Conformity: A Study in Values (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey, 1969); Melvin L. Kohn and Carmi Schooler, Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1983); see also Duane F. Alwin and David J. Jackson, "The Statistical Analysis of Kohn's Measure of Parental Values," in Systems under Indirect Observation: Causality, Structure, and Prediction, ed. Karl G. Joreskog and H. O. A. Wald (New York: Elsevier North Holland, 1980), pp. 197-223.
35. Kazimierz M. Slomczynski and Melvin L. Kohn, Sytuacja pracy i jej psychologiczne konsekwencje: Polsko-Amerykanskie analizy porownawcze (Work situation and its psychological consequences: Polish-American comparative analyses) (Wroclaw: Ossolineum, 1988); Kohn and Slomczynski.
36. There are alternative methods of approaching ipsative measures. See David J. Jackson and Duane F. Alwin, "The Factor Analysis of Ipsative Measures," Sociological Methods and Research 9, no. 2 (1980): 218-38; Duane F. Alwin and David J. Jackson, "Adult Values for Children: An Application of Factor Analysis to Ranked Preference Data," in Social Structure and Behavior: Essays in Honor of William Hamilton Sewell, ed. Robert M. Hauser, David Mechanic, Archibald O. Haller, and Taissa S. Hauser (New York: Academic Press, 1982), pp. 311-29.
37. There are alternative methods of approaching ipsative measures. See David J. Jackson and Duane F. Alwin, "The Factor Analysis of Ipsative Measures," Sociological Methods and Research 9, no. 2 (1980): 218-38; Duane F. Alwin and David J. Jackson, "Adult Values for Children: An Application of Factor Analysis to Ranked Preference Data," in Social Structure and Behavior: Essays in Honor of William Hamilton Sewell, ed. Robert M. Hauser, David Mechanic, Archibald O. Haller, and Taissa S. Hauser (New York: Academic Press, 1982), pp. 311-29.
38. Mach (n. 10 above).
39. Anna Titkow, Wartosc dziecka (Value of a child) (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1983); Magdalena Sokolowska, Anna Firkowska-Mankiewicz, Antonina Ostrowska, and Miroslaw P. Czarkowski, Intellectual Performance of Children: The Warsaw Study (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1978); Krystyna Skarzynska, "Determinants of Values Accepted by Youth," Polish Psychological Bulletin 24, no. 4 (1993): 195-207; Jadwiga Koralewicz-Zebik, "Wartosci rodzicielskie a stratyfikacja spoleczna" (Parental values and social stratification), Studia socjologiczne 3-4, nos. 86-87 (1982): 225-38.
40. Anna Titkow, Wartosc dziecka (Value of a child) (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1983); Magdalena Sokolowska, Anna Firkowska-Mankiewicz, Antonina Ostrowska, and Miroslaw P. Czarkowski, Intellectual Performance of Children: The Warsaw Study (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1978); Krystyna Skarzynska, "Determinants of Values Accepted by Youth," Polish Psychological Bulletin 24, no. 4 (1993): 195-207; Jadwiga Koralewicz-Zebik, "Wartosci rodzicielskie a stratyfikacja spoleczna" (Parental values and social stratification), Studia socjologiczne 3-4, nos. 86-87 (1982): 225-38.
41. Anna Titkow, Wartosc dziecka (Value of a child) (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1983); Magdalena Sokolowska, Anna Firkowska-Mankiewicz, Antonina Ostrowska, and Miroslaw P. Czarkowski, Intellectual Performance of Children: The Warsaw Study (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1978); Krystyna Skarzynska, "Determinants of Values Accepted by Youth," Polish Psychological Bulletin 24, no. 4 (1993): 195-207; Jadwiga Koralewicz-Zebik, "Wartosci rodzicielskie a stratyfikacja spoleczna" (Parental values and social stratification), Studia socjologiczne 3-4, nos. 86-87 (1982): 225-38.
42. Anna Titkow, Wartosc dziecka (Value of a child) (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1983); Magdalena Sokolowska, Anna Firkowska-Mankiewicz, Antonina Ostrowska, and Miroslaw P. Czarkowski, Intellectual Performance of Children: The Warsaw Study (Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, 1978); Krystyna Skarzynska, "Determinants of Values Accepted by Youth," Polish Psychological Bulletin 24, no. 4 (1993): 195-207; Jadwiga Koralewicz-Zebik, "Wartosci rodzicielskie a stratyfikacja spoleczna" (Parental values and social stratification), Studia socjologiczne 3-4, nos. 86-87 (1982): 225-38.
43. Mach.
44. The one exception concerns the last of the indicators of authoritarian-conservatism: "Young people should not be allowed to read books that are likely to confuse them." We can only surmise that this is not something teachers would be prone to agree with, given that their professional role is to broaden students' understanding of complex issues.
45. Lane (n. 5 above); Sniderman (n. 5 above); Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (New York: Basic, 1963).
46. Lane (n. 5 above); Sniderman (n. 5 above); Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (New York: Basic, 1963).
47. Converse (n. 6 above).
48. Kenneth Jowitt, "The Leninist Legacy," in Eastern Europe in Revolution, ed. Ivo Banac (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 207-24; Jadwiga Staniszkis, The Dynamics of the Breakthrough in Eastern Europe: The Polish Experience (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); Marek Ziolkowski, "Social Structure, Interests and Consciousness: The Crisis and the Transformation of the System of Real Socialism in Poland," Acta Sociologica 4, no. 2 (1990): 289-303; see also Barbara Heyns and Aleksandra Jasinska-Kania, "Values, Politics, and the Ideologies of Reform: Poland in Transition," in Democratization in Eastern and Western Europe: A Research Annual, ed. F. D. Weil (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1992), pp. 169-94.
49. Kenneth Jowitt, "The Leninist Legacy," in Eastern Europe in Revolution, ed. Ivo Banac (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 207-24; Jadwiga Staniszkis, The Dynamics of the Breakthrough in Eastern Europe: The Polish Experience (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); Marek Ziolkowski, "Social Structure, Interests and Consciousness: The Crisis and the Transformation of the System of Real Socialism in Poland," Acta Sociologica 4, no. 2 (1990): 289-303; see also Barbara Heyns and Aleksandra Jasinska-Kania, "Values, Politics, and the Ideologies of Reform: Poland in Transition," in Democratization in Eastern and Western Europe: A Research Annual, ed. F. D. Weil (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1992), pp. 169-94.
50. Kenneth Jowitt, "The Leninist Legacy," in Eastern Europe in Revolution, ed. Ivo Banac (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 207-24; Jadwiga Staniszkis, The Dynamics of the Breakthrough in Eastern Europe: The Polish Experience (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); Marek Ziolkowski, "Social Structure, Interests and Consciousness: The Crisis and the Transformation of the System of Real Socialism in Poland," Acta Sociologica 4, no. 2 (1990): 289-303; see also Barbara Heyns and Aleksandra Jasinska-Kania, "Values, Politics, and the Ideologies of Reform: Poland in Transition," in Democratization in Eastern and Western Europe: A Research Annual, ed. F. D. Weil (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1992), pp. 169-94.
51. Kenneth Jowitt, "The Leninist Legacy," in Eastern Europe in Revolution, ed. Ivo Banac (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 207-24; Jadwiga Staniszkis, The Dynamics of the Breakthrough in Eastern Europe: The Polish Experience (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); Marek Ziolkowski, "Social Structure, Interests and Consciousness: The Crisis and the Transformation of the System of Real Socialism in Poland," Acta Sociologica 4, no. 2 (1990): 289-303; see also Barbara Heyns and Aleksandra Jasinska-Kania, "Values, Politics, and the Ideologies of Reform: Poland in Transition," in Democratization in Eastern and Western Europe: A Research Annual, ed. F. D. Weil (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1992), pp. 169-94.
52. Shawn W. Rosenberg, "Sociology, Psychology, and the Study of Political Behavior: The Case of the Research on Political Socialization," Journal of Politics 47, no. 2 (May 1985): 713-31. Rosenberg advocates an incorporation of psychological concepts into research on political socialization.
53. Harry Eckstein, "A Culturalist Theory of Political Change," American Political Science Review 82, no. 3 (September 1988): 789-804.
54. Richard G. Niemi and Mary A. Hepburn, "The Rebirth of Political Socialization," Perspectives on Political Science 1, no. 24 (Winter 1995): 7-16; David O. Sears, "Political Socialization," in Greenstein and Polsby (n. 5 above), pp. 93-153; and Richard G. Niemi and Barbara I. Sobieszek, "Political Socialization," Annual Review of Sociology 3 (1977): 209-33.
55. Richard G. Niemi and Mary A. Hepburn, "The Rebirth of Political Socialization," Perspectives on Political Science 1, no. 24 (Winter 1995): 7-16; David O. Sears, "Political Socialization," in Greenstein and Polsby (n. 5 above), pp. 93-153; and Richard G. Niemi and Barbara I. Sobieszek, "Political Socialization," Annual Review of Sociology 3 (1977): 209-33.
56. Richard G. Niemi and Mary A. Hepburn, "The Rebirth of Political Socialization," Perspectives on Political Science 1, no. 24 (Winter 1995): 7-16; David O. Sears, "Political Socialization," in Greenstein and Polsby (n. 5 above), pp. 93-153; and Richard G. Niemi and Barbara I. Sobieszek, "Political Socialization," Annual Review of Sociology 3 (1977): 209-33.
57. David P. Conradt, "Changing German Political Culture," in The Civic Culture Revisited, ed. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), pp. 161-93; Kendall Baker, Russell Dalton, and Kai Hildebrandt, Germany Transformed: Political Culture and the New Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
58. David P. Conradt, "Changing German Political Culture," in The Civic Culture Revisited, ed. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), pp. 161-93; Kendall Baker, Russell Dalton, and Kai Hildebrandt, Germany Transformed: Political Culture and the New Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
59. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974); L. H. Ehman, "The American School in the Political Socialization Process," Review of Educational Research 50, no. 1 (Spring 1980): 99-119; E. F. Travers, "The Role of School in Political Socialization Reconsidered: Evidence from 1970 and 1979," Youth and Society 14, no. 4 (June 1983): 475-500; J. V. Torney, A. N. Oppenheim, and R. F. Farnen, Civics Education in Ten Countries (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975).
60. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974); L. H. Ehman, "The American School in the Political Socialization Process," Review of Educational Research 50, no. 1 (Spring 1980): 99-119; E. F. Travers, "The Role of School in Political Socialization Reconsidered: Evidence from 1970 and 1979," Youth and Society 14, no. 4 (June 1983): 475-500; J. V. Torney, A. N. Oppenheim, and R. F. Farnen, Civics Education in Ten Countries (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975).
61. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974); L. H. Ehman, "The American School in the Political Socialization Process," Review of Educational Research 50, no. 1 (Spring 1980): 99-119; E. F. Travers, "The Role of School in Political Socialization Reconsidered: Evidence from 1970 and 1979," Youth and Society 14, no. 4 (June 1983): 475-500; J. V. Torney, A. N. Oppenheim, and R. F. Farnen, Civics Education in Ten Countries (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975).
62. Robert Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974); L. H. Ehman, "The American School in the Political Socialization Process," Review of Educational Research 50, no. 1 (Spring 1980): 99-119; E. F. Travers, "The Role of School in Political Socialization Reconsidered: Evidence from 1970 and 1979," Youth and Society 14, no. 4 (June 1983): 475-500; J. V. Torney, A. N. Oppenheim, and R. F. Farnen, Civics Education in Ten Countries (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975).
63. Niemi and Hepburn.
64. James R. Millar and Sharon L. Wolchik, eds., The Social Legacy of Communism (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994).
65. It has been argued that the Romantic tradition has a significant role to play in present-day citizenship education in Poland; see Malgorzata Niemczynska and Adam Niemczynski, "Perspectives from Past and Present on Moral and Citizenship Education in Poland," Journal of Moral Education 21, no. 3 (1992): 225-33.
66. Jowitt. For a similar, but more general, argument concerning cultural obstacles to democratization, see Samuel P. Huntington, "Will More Countries Become Democratic?" Political Science Quarterly 99 (Summer 1984): 193-218.
67. Giuseppe Di Palma, "Why Democracy Can Work in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 21-31. For a similar argument, see also Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Towards a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63.
68. Giuseppe Di Palma, "Why Democracy Can Work in Eastern Europe," Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 21-31. For a similar argument, see also Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Towards a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63.
69. Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry Lynn Karl, "The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?" Slavic Review 53, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 173-85.
70. For a discussion of the use of panel studies to investigate political socialization, see Sears.