Specific and nonspecific treatment factors in the experimental analysis of behavioral treatment efficacy

Behavior Modification

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 322-368

  Lohr, Jeffrey M ^a   DeMaio, Christine ^a   McGlynn, F Dudley ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS   (United States)

^b AUBURN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavior therapy; Efficacy; Specific factors

Indexed keywords

PHENOTHIAZINE;

ANXIETY DISORDER; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; COGNITION; COMPARATIVE STUDY; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; ERROR; FOLLOW UP; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH SERVICE; HUMAN; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MENTAL HEALTH SERVICE; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; POLITICS; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOLOGY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VALIDATION PROCESS; ARTICLE; FACTORIAL ANALYSIS; MENTAL DISEASE; METHODOLOGY;

BEHAVIOR THERAPY; FACTOR ANALYSIS, STATISTICAL; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS;

EID: 0043071492     PISSN: 01454455     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0145445503027003005     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Ahn, H., & Wampold, B. E. (2001). Where, oh, where are the specific ingredients?: A meta-analysis of component studies in counseling and psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 251-257.
2. Axsom, D., & Cooper, J. (1985). Cognitive dissonance and psychotherapy: The role of effort justification in inducing weight loss. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 149-160
3. Barlow, D. H., Rapee, R. M., & Brown, T. A. (1992). Behavioral treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 23, 551-570.
4. Beck, A. T., & Emery, G. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.
5. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.
6. Bernstein, D. A., & Borkovec, T. D. (1973). Progressive relaxation training. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
7. Bernstein, D. A., & Kleinknecht, R. A. (1982). Multiple approaches to the reduction of dental fear. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 13, 287-292.
8. Beutler, L. E. (1991). Have all won and must all have prizes? Revisiting Luborsky et al.'s verdict. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 226-232.
9. Blowers, C., Cobb, J., & Mathews, A. (1987). Generalized anxiety: A controlled treatment study. Behavior Research and Therapy, 25(6), 493-502.
10. Borkovec, T. D. (1985). Placebo: Defining the unknown. In L. White, B. Tursky, & G. E. Schwartz (Eds.), Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms (pp. 59-64). New York: Guilford.
11. Borkovec, T. D., & Bauer, R. (1982). Experimental design in group outcome research. In A. Bellack, M. Hersen, & A. Kazdin (Eds.), International handbook of behavior modification and therapy (pp. 139-165). New York: Plenum.
12. Borkovec, T. D., & Castonguay, L. G. (1998). What is the scientific meaning of "empirically supported therapy?" Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 136-142.
13. Borkovec, T. D., & Costello, E. (1993). Efficacy of applied relaxation and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 611-619.
14. Borkovec, T. D., Kaloupek, D. G., & Slama, K. M. (1975). The facilitative effect of muscle tension release in the relaxation treatment of sleep disturbance. Behavior Therapy, 21, 301-309.
15. Borkovec, T. D., & Inz, J. (1990). The nature of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: The predominance of thought activity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 153-158.
16. Borkovec, T. D., & Mathews, A. M. (1988). Treatment of nonphobic anxiety disorders: A comparison of nondirective, cognitive, and coping desensitization therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 877-884.
17. Borkovec, T. D., Mathews, A. M., Chambers, A., Ebrahimi, S., Lytle, R., & Nelson, R. (1987). The effects of relaxation training with cognitive or nondirective therapy and the role of relaxation-induced anxiety in the treatment of generalized anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(6), 883-888.
18. Borkovec, T. D., & Nau, S.D. (1972). Credibility of analogue therapy rationales. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 3, 257-260.
19. Borkovec, T. D., & Newman, M. G. (1998). Worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In P. M. Salkovskis (Ed.), Comprehensive clinical psychology, adults: Clinical formulation and treatment (pp. 439-459). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
20. Boudewyns, P. A., & Hyer, L. A. (1996). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 3, 185-195.
21. Boudewyns, P. A., Stwertka, S. A., Hyer, L. A., Albrecht, J. W., & Sperr, E. V. (1993). Eye movement desensitization for PTSD of combat: A treatment outcome pilot study. The Behavior Therapist, 16, 29-33.
22. Bowers, T. G., & Clum, G. A. (1988). Relative contribution of specific and nonspecific treatment effects: Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled behavior therapy research. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 315-323.
23. Brody, H. (1985). Placebo effect: An examination of Grunbaum's definition. In L. White, B. Tursky, & G. E. Schwartz (Eds.), Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms (pp. 36-58). New York: Guilford.
24. Brody, H. (1988). The symbolic power of the modern personal physician: The placebo response under challenge. Journal of Drug Issues, 18, 149-161.
25. Butler, G., Fennell, M., Robson, P., & Gelder, M. (1991). Comparison of behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 167-175.
26. Cahill, S. P., Carrigan, M. H., & Frueh, B. C. (1999). Does EMDR work? And if so, why? A critical review of controlled outcome and dismantling research. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 5-33.
27. Castonguay, L. G. (1993). "Common factors" and "nonspecific variables": Clarification of the two concepts and recommendations for research. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 3, 267-286.
28. Chambless, D. L., Baker, M. J., Baucom, D. H., Beutler, L. E., Calhoun, K. S., Crits-Christoph, P., et al. (1998). Update on empirically validated therapies: II. The Clinical Psychologist, 51, 3-16.
29. Chambless, D. L., & Hollon, S. D. (1998). Defining empirically supported therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 7-18.
30. Chambless, D. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2000). Empirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 685-716.
31. Chambless, D. L., Sanderson, W. C., Shoham, V., Johnson, S. B., Pope, K. S., Crits-Christoph, P., et al. (1996). An update on empirically validated therapies. The Clinical Psychologist, 49, 5-18.
32. Clum, G. A., & Bowers, T. G. (1990). Behavior therapy better than placebo treatments: Fact or artifact? Psychological Bulletin, 107, 110-113.
33. Critelli, J. W., & Neuman, K. F. (1984). The placebo: Conceptual analysis of a construct in transition. American Psychologist, 39, 32-39.
34. Cusack, K., & Spates, C. R. (1999). The cognitive dismantling of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 87-99.
35. Davidson, P. R., & Parker, C. H. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 305-316.
36. Davison, G. C. (1968). Systematic desensitization as a counterconditioning process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 91-99.
37. Davison, G. C. (2000). Stepped care: Doing more with less? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 580-585.
38. DeRubeis, R. J. (2000, September). Kinds of efficacy and process findings and how they inform the specificity debate. Paper presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, Bloomington, IL.
39. Devilly, G. J., Spence, S., & Rapee, R. (1998). Statistical and reliable change with eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing: Treating trauma with a veteran population. Behavior Therapy, 29, 435-455.
40. Durham, R. C., & Turvey, A. A. (1987). Cognitive therapy vs. behaviour therapy in the treatment of chronic general anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 229-234.
41. Eifert, G. H. (1996). More theory-driven and less diagnosis-based behavior therapy. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 75-86.
42. Evans, F. J. (1985). Expectancy, therapeutic instructions, and the placebo response. In L. White, B. Tursky, & G. E. Schwartz (Eds.), Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms (pp. 215-228). New York: Guilford.
43. Eysenck, H. J. (1952). The effects of psychotherapy: An evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16, 319-324.
44. Feeley, M., DeRubeis, R. J., & Gelfand, L. A. (1999). The temporal relation of adherence and alliance to symptom change in cognitive therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 578-582.
45. Feske, U., & Goldstein, A. J. (1997). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for panic disorder: A controlled treatment outcome and partial dismantling study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 1026-1035.
46. Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1997). The curse of the placebo: Fanciful pursuit of a pure biological therapy. In S. Fisher & R. P. Greenberg (Eds.), From placebo to panacea: Putting psychiatric drugs to the test (pp. 3-56). New York: John Wiley.
47. Foa, E. B., & Meadows, E. A. (1997). Psychosocial treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 449-480.
48. Foley, T., & Spates, C. R. (1995). Eye movement desensitization of public-speaking anxiety: A partial dismantling study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 26, 321-329.
49. Frank, J. D. (1961). Persuasion and healing. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
50. Frank, J. D. (1971). Therapeutic factors in psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 25, 350-361.
51. Gaffan, E. A., Tsaousis, I., & Kemp-Wheeler, S. M. (1995). Researcher allegiance and meta-analysis: The case of cognitive therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 966-980.
52. Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Systematic desensitization as training in self-control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 37, 228-234.
53. Goldstein, A. J., de Beurs, E., Chambless, D. L., & Wilson, K. A. (2000). EMDR for panic disorder with agoraphobia: Comparison with waiting list and credible attention-placebo control conditions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 947-956.
54. Gosselin, P., & Matthews, W. J. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of test anxiety: A study of the effects of expectancy and eye movement. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 26, 331-337.
55. Green, B., & Blanchard, E. B. (1994). Cognitive therapy for irritable bowel syndrome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 576-582.
56. Grencavage, L., Bootzin, R. R., & Shoham, V. (1993). Specific and nonspecific effects in psychological treatments. In C. G. Costello (Ed.), Basic issues in psychotherapy (pp. 359-376). New York: Guilford.
57. Grunbaum, A. (1985). Explication and implications of the placebo concept. In L. White, B. Tursky, & G. E. Schwartz (Eds.), Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms (pp. 9-36). New York: Guilford.
58. Hart, J. (1970). The development of client-centered therapy. In J. Hart & T. M. Tomlinson (Eds.), New directions in client-centered therapy (pp. 3-22). New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
59. Harvey, A. G., & Rapee, R. M. (1995). Cognitive-behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 859-870.
60. Herbert, J. D. (2000). Defining empirically supported treatments: Pitfalls and possible solutions. The Behavior Therapist, 23, 113-134.
61. Jacobson, N. E., & Baucom, D. H. (1977). Design and assessment of nonspecific control groups in behavior modification research. Behavior Therapy, 8, 709-719.
62. Jacobson, N. E., Dobson, K. S., Truax, P. A., Addis, M. E., Koerner, K., Gollan, J. K., et al. (1996). A component analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 295-304.
63. Jacobson, N. E., & Hollon, S. D. (1996). Cognitive-behavior therapy vs. pharmacotherapy: Now that the jury has returned its verdict, it's time to present the rest of the evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 74-80.
64. Jacobson, N. S., Follette, W. C., & Revenstorf, D. (1984). Psychotherapy outcome research: Methods for reporting variability and evaluating clinical significance. Behavior Therapy, 15, 336-352.
65. Kanfer, F. H., & Phillips, J. S. (1966). Behavior therapy: A panacea for all ills or a passing fancy? Archives of General Psychiatry, 15, 114-128.
66. Kazdin, A. E. (1979a). Nonspecific treatment factors in psychotherapy outcome research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 846-851.
67. Kazdin, A. E. (1979b). Therapy outcome questions requiring control of credibility and treatment-generated expectancies. Behavior Therapy, 10, 81-93.
68. Kazdin, A. E., & Wilcoxon, L. A. (1976). Systematic desensitization and nonspecific effects: A methodological evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 729-758.
69. Keane, T. M. (1998). Psychological and behavioral treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. In P. Nathan & J. Gorman (Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (pp. 398-407). Oxford University Press.
70. Kirsch, I. (1978). The placebo effect and the cognitive-behavioral revolution. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2, 255-264.
71. Kirsch, I. (1990). Changing expectations: A key to effective psychotherapy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
72. Kirsch, I. (1997a). Response expectancy theory and application: A decennial review. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 6, 69-79.
73. Kirsch, I. (1997b). Specifying nonspecifics: Psychological mechanisms of placebo effects. In A. Harrington (Ed.), The placebo effect: An interdisciplinary exploration (pp. 166-186). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
74. Kornblith, S. J., Rehm, L. P., O'Hara, M. W., & Lamparski, D. M. (1983). The contribution of self-reinforcement training and behavioral assignments to the efficacy of self-control therapy for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7, 499-528.
75. Ladouceur, R., Dugas, M. J., Freeston, M. H., Leger, E., Gagnon, F., & Thibodeau, N. (2000). Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluation of a controlled clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 957-964.
76. Lang, P. J., & Lazovik, A. D. (1963). Experimental desensitization of a phobia. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 519-525.
77. Lang, P. J., Lazovik, A. D., & Reynolds, D. J. (1965). Desensitization, suggestibility, and pseudotherapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, 395-402.
78. Lazovik, A. D., & Lang, P. J. (1960). A laboratory demonstration of systematic desensitization psychotherapy. Journal of Psychological Studies, 11, 238-247.
79. Lindsay, W. R., Gamsu, C. V., McLaughlin, E., Hood, E. M., & Espie, C. A. (1987). A controlled trial of treatments for generalized anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 3-15.
80. Lohr, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., Tolin, D. F., & Herbert, J. D. (1999). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): An analysis of specific and nonspecific effects. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 185-207.
81. Lohr, J. M., Meunier, S. A., Parker, L. M., & Kline, J. P. (2001). Neurotherapy does not qualify as an empirically supported behavioral treatment for psychological disorders. The Behavior Therapist, 24, 97-104.
82. Lohr, J. M., Tolin, D. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (1998). Efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Implications for behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 29, 123-156.
83. Luborsky, L., Diguer, L., Seligman, D. A., Rosenthal, R., Krause, E. D., Johnson, S., et al. (1999). The researcher's own therapy allegiances: A "wild card" in comparisons of treatment efficacy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 6, 95-106.
84. Luborsky, L., Singer, B., & Luborsky, L. (1975). Comparative studies of psychotherapies: Is it true that "everyone has won and all must have prizes"? Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 995-1008.
85. Mahoney, M. J. (1978). Experimental methods and outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 660-672.
86. Marchetti, A., McGlynn, F. D., & Patterson, A. S. (1977), Effects of cue-controlled relaxation, a placebo treatment, and no treatment on changes in self-reported and psychophysiological indices of test anxiety. Behavior Modification, 21, 47-72.
87. Martin, D. J., Garske, J. P., & Davis, M. K. (2000). Relation of the therapeutic alliance with outcome and other variables: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 438-450.
88. McGlynn, F. D., & McDonell, R. M. (1974). Subjective ratings of credibility following brief exposure to desensitization and pseudotherapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 12, 141-146.
89. McNally, R. J. (1999). EMDR and Mesmerism: A comparative historical analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 225-236.
90. McReynolds, W. T., & Tori, C. (1972). A further assessment of attention placebo effect and demand characteristics in studies of systematic desensitization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 38, 261-264.
91. Meehl, P. E. (1959). Some ruminations on the validation of clinical procedures. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13, 102-128.
92. Muris, P., & Merckelbach, H. (1997). Treating spider phobies with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: A controlled study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25, 39-50.
93. Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Holdrinet, I., & Sijsenaar, M. (1998). Treating phobic children: Effects of EMDR versus exposure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 193-198.
94. Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., van Haaften, H., & Mayer, B. (1997). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing versus exposure in vivo: A single session crossover study of spider-phobic children: British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 82-86.
95. Nezu, A. (1986). Efficacy of a social problem-solving therapy approach to unipolar depression, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 196-202.
96. Nezu, A., & Perri, M. G. (1989). Social problem-solving therapy for unipolar depression: An initial dismantling investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 408-413.
97. O'Leary, K. D., & Borkovec, T. D. (1978). Conceptual, methodological, and ethical problems of placebo groups in psychotherapy research. American Psychologist, 33, 821-830.
98. Ost, L. G. (1987). Applied relaxation: Description of a coping technique and review of controlled studies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 397-409.
99. Ost, L. G., & Breitholtz, E. (2000). Applied relaxation vs. cognitive therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 777-790.
100. Paul, G. L. (1966). Insight vs. desensitization in psychotherapy: An experiment in anxiety reduction. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
101. Paul, G. L. (1967). Insight vs. desensitization in psychotherapy two years after termination. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 333-348.
102. Paul, G. L. (1969). Behavior modification research: Design and tactics. In C. M. Franks (Ed.), Behavior therapy: Appraisal and status (pp. 29-62). New York: McGraw-Hill.
103. Payne, A., & Blanchard, E. B. (1995). A controlled comparison of cognitive therapy and self-help support groups in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 779-786.
104. Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Altman, B., Longpre, R. E., Poire', R. E., & Macklin, M. L. (1996). Emotional processing during eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy of Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37, 419-429.
105. Power, K. G., Simpson, R. J., Swanson, V., Wallace, L. A., Feistner, A. T. C., & Sharp, D. (1990). A controlled comparison of cognitive-behavior therapy, diazepam, and placebo, alone and in combination, for the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 4, 267-292.
106. Prioleau, L., Murdock, M., & Brody, N. (1983). An analysis of psychotherapy versus placebo studies. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6, 275-310.
107. Rehm, L. P., Kornblith, S. J., O'Hara, M. W., Lamparski, D. M., Romano, J. M., & Volkin, J. (1982). An evaluation of the major components in a self-control behavior therapy treatment for depression. Behavior Modification, 5, 459-489.
108. Renfrey, G., & Spates, C. (1994). Eye movement desensitization: A partial dismantling study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 231-239.
109. Roberts, A. H., Kewman, D. G., Mercier, L., & Hovell, M. (1993). The power of nonspecific effects in healing: Implications for psychosocial and biological treatments. Clinical Psychology-Review, 13, 375-391.
110. Rosenthal, R. (1979). The "file drawer problem" and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 638-641.
111. Ross, M., & Olson, J. M. (1981). An expectancy-attribution model of the effects of placebos. Psychological Review, 88, 408-437.
112. Sanderson, A., & Carpenter, R. (1992). Eye movement desensitization versus image confrontation: A single-session crossover study of 58 phobic subjects. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 23, 269-275.
113. Sanderson, W. C., & Woody, S. (1995). Manuals for empirically supported treatments. The Clinical Psychologist, 48(4), 7-11.
114. Sechrest, L. (1963). Incremental validity: A recommendation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 23, 153-158.
115. Shapiro, A. K. (1971). Placebo effects in medicine, psychotherapy, and psychoanalysis. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change: An empirical analysis (pp. 439-473). New York: John Wiley.
116. Shapiro, A. K., & Morris, L. A. (1978). The placebo effect in medical and psychological therapies. In A. E. Bergin & S. C. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (pp. 369-410). New York: John Wiley.
117. Shapiro, A. K., & Shapiro, E. (1997). The placebo: Is it much ado about nothing? In A. Harrington (Ed.), The placebo effect: An interdisciplinary exploration (pp. 12-36). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
118. Shapiro, F. (1991). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing procedure: From EMD to EMD/R - a new treatment model for anxiety and related trauma. The Behavior Therapist, 14, 133-135.
119. Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. New York: Guilford.
120. Sloan, R. B., Staples, F. R., Cristol, A. H., Yorkston, N. J., & Whipple, K. (1975). Psychotherapy versus behavior therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
121. Smith, M. L., & Glass, G. V. (1977). Meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies. American Psychologist, 32, 752-760.
122. Strupp, H. H. (1986). The nonspecific hypothesis of therapeutic effectiveness: A current assessment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, 513-520.
123. Suinn, R. M., & Richardson, R. (1971). Anxiety management training: A nonspecific behavior therapy program for anxiety control. Behavior Therapy, 2, 498-510.
124. Tang, T. Z., & DeRubeis, R. J. (1999). Sudden gains and critical sessions in cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 894-904.
125. Task Force on the Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures. (1995). Training in and dissemination of empirically validated treatments. The Clinical Psychologist, 48(1), 3-23.
126. Thorne, F. C. (1952). Rules of evidence in the evaluation of the effect of psychotherapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 8, 38-41.
127. Tolin, D. F., Montgomery, R. W, Kleinknecht, R. A., & Lohr, J. M. (1995). An evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). In L. Vandercreek, S. Knapp, & T. L. Jackson (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A sourcebook (Vol. 14, pp. 423-437). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resources Press.
128. Wampold, B. E., Mondin, G. W., Moody, M., Stich, F. Benson, K., & Ahn, H. (1997). A meta-analysis of outcome studies comparing bona fide psychotherapies: Empirically "all must have prizes." Psychological Bulletin, 122, 203-215.
129. White, J., Keenan, M., & Brooks, N. (1992). Stress control: A controlled comparative investigation of large group therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioral Psychotherapy, 20, 97-114.
130. White, L., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (Eds.). (1985). Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms. New York: Guilford.
131. Wilkins, W. (1979). Expectancies in therapy research: Discriminating among heterogeneous nonspecifics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 837-845.
132. Wilkins, W. (1984). Psychotherapy: The powerful placebo. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 570-573.
133. Wilson, G. T., & Evans, W. I. M. (1977). The therapist-client relationship in behavior therapy. In A. S. Gurman & A. M. Razin (Eds.), Effective psychotherapy: A handbook of research (pp. 544-565). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
134. Wilson, G. T., Hannon, A. E., & Evans, W. I. M. (1968). Behavior therapy and the therapist-patient relationship. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 103-109.
135. Wolpe, J. (1952). Objective psychotherapy of the neuroses. South African Medical Journal, 26, 825-829.
136. Wolpe, J. (1954). Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 72, 205-226.
137. Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
138. Wolpe, J. (1990). The practice of behavior therapy (4th ed.). New York: Pergamon.