Curing Our 'Epidemic' of Learning Disabilities

Phi Delta Kappan

Volumn 79, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 397-401

  Spear Swerling, Louise ^a   Sternberg, Robert J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0043053626     PISSN: 00317217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. Janet W. Lerner, Learning Disabilities: Theories, Diagnosis, and Teaching Strategies (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993); and To Assure the Free, Appropriate Education of All Handicapped Children (1978-1990): 13th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1991).
2. Janet W. Lerner, Learning Disabilities: Theories, Diagnosis, and Teaching Strategies (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993); and To Assure the Free, Appropriate Education of All Handicapped Children (1978-1990): 13th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1991).
3. W. Frankenberger and J. Harper, "States' Criteria and Procedures for Identifying Learning Disabled Children: A Comparison of 1981/82 and 1985/86 Guidelines," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 20, 1987, pp. 118-21; and Keith E. Stanovich, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability: Has Intelligence Led Us Astray?," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 26, 1991, pp. 7-29.
4. W. Frankenberger and J. Harper, "States' Criteria and Procedures for Identifying Learning Disabled Children: A Comparison of 1981/82 and 1985/86 Guidelines," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 20, 1987, pp. 118-21; and Keith E. Stanovich, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability: Has Intelligence Led Us Astray?," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 26, 1991, pp. 7-29.
5. National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, letter to member organizations, 1988.
6. Louisa C. Moats and G. Reid Lyon, "Learning Disabilities in the United States: Advocacy, Science, and the Future of the Field," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 26, 1993, pp. 282-94; and Corinne R. Smith, Learning Disabilities: The Interaction of Learner, Task, and Setting (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1991).
7. Louisa C. Moats and G. Reid Lyon, "Learning Disabilities in the United States: Advocacy, Science, and the Future of the Field," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 26, 1993, pp. 282-94; and Corinne R. Smith, Learning Disabilities: The Interaction of Learner, Task, and Setting (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1991).
8. Linda S. Siegel, "I.Q. Is Irrelevant to the Definition of Learning Disabilities," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 22, 1989, pp. 469-78.
9. Richard L. Allington and Anne McGill-Franzen, "School Response to Reading Failure: Instruction for Chapter 1 and Special Education Students in Grades Two, Four, and Eight," Elementary School Journal, vol. 89, 1989, pp. 529-42; and Anne McGill-Franzen, "Compensatory and Special Education: Is There Accountability for Learning and Belief in Children's Potential?" in Elfrieda H. Hiebert and Barbara M. Taylor, eds., Getting Reading Right from the Start: Effective Early Literacy Interventions (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994), pp. 13-35.
10. Richard L. Allington and Anne McGill-Franzen, "School Response to Reading Failure: Instruction for Chapter 1 and Special Education Students in Grades Two, Four, and Eight," Elementary School Journal, vol. 89, 1989, pp. 529-42; and Anne McGill-Franzen, "Compensatory and Special Education: Is There Accountability for Learning and Belief in Children's Potential?" in Elfrieda H. Hiebert and Barbara M. Taylor, eds., Getting Reading Right from the Start: Effective Early Literacy Interventions (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994), pp. 13-35.
11. Keith E. Stanovich, Anne Cunningham, and Dorothy Feeman, "Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Early Reading Progress," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 19, 1984, pp. 278-303.
12. Robert B. McCall, Fundamental Statistics for Psychology (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980).
13. Moats and Lyon, op.cit.
14. Linda J. Hargrove and James A. Poteet, Assessment in Special Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984); and Lerner, op. cit.
15. Linda J. Hargrove and James A. Poteet, Assessment in Special Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984); and Lerner, op. cit.
16. Frankenberger and Harper, op. cit.
17. See, for example, Stephen J. Ceci, On Intelligence - More or Less: A Biological Treatise on Intellectual Development (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990); Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q.: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and idem, The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, 1988).
18. See, for example, Stephen J. Ceci, On Intelligence - More or Less: A Biological Treatise on Intellectual Development (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990); Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q.: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and idem, The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, 1988).
19. See, for example, Stephen J. Ceci, On Intelligence - More or Less: A Biological Treatise on Intellectual Development (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990); Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q.: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and idem, The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, 1988).
20. See, for example, Stephen J. Ceci, On Intelligence - More or Less: A Biological Treatise on Intellectual Development (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990); Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Robert J. Sternberg, Beyond I.Q.: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and idem, The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, 1988).
21. Jack M. Fletcher et al., "Cognitive Profiles of Reading Disability: Comparisons of Discrepancy and Low Achievement Definitions." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, 1994. pp. 6-23; Richard K. Olson et al., "Genetic Etiology of Individual Differences in Reading Disability." in L. V. Feagans. E. J. Short, and L. J. Meltzer, eds., Subtypes of Learning Disabilities: Theoretical Perspectives and Research (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 113-35; and Linda S. Siegel, "Evidence That I.Q. Scores Are Irrelevant to the Definition and Analysis of Reading Disability," Canadian Journal of Psychology, vol. 42, 1988, pp. 201-15.
22. Jack M. Fletcher et al., "Cognitive Profiles of Reading Disability: Comparisons of Discrepancy and Low Achievement Definitions." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, 1994. pp. 6-23; Richard K. Olson et al., "Genetic Etiology of Individual Differences in Reading Disability." in L. V. Feagans. E. J. Short, and L. J. Meltzer, eds., Subtypes of Learning Disabilities: Theoretical Perspectives and Research (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 113-35; and Linda S. Siegel, "Evidence That I.Q. Scores Are Irrelevant to the Definition and Analysis of Reading Disability," Canadian Journal of Psychology, vol. 42, 1988, pp. 201-15.
23. Jack M. Fletcher et al., "Cognitive Profiles of Reading Disability: Comparisons of Discrepancy and Low Achievement Definitions." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, 1994. pp. 6-23; Richard K. Olson et al., "Genetic Etiology of Individual Differences in Reading Disability." in L. V. Feagans. E. J. Short, and L. J. Meltzer, eds., Subtypes of Learning Disabilities: Theoretical Perspectives and Research (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 113-35; and Linda S. Siegel, "Evidence That I.Q. Scores Are Irrelevant to the Definition and Analysis of Reading Disability," Canadian Journal of Psychology, vol. 42, 1988, pp. 201-15.
24. Gerald S. Coles, The Learning Mystique: A Critical Look at "Learning Disabilities" (New York: Pantheon, 1987); and Louise Spear-Swerling and Robert J. Sternberg, Roads to Reading Disability: When Poor Readers Become "Learning Disabled" (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
25. Gerald S. Coles, The Learning Mystique: A Critical Look at "Learning Disabilities" (New York: Pantheon, 1987); and Louise Spear-Swerling and Robert J. Sternberg, Roads to Reading Disability: When Poor Readers Become "Learning Disabled" (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
26. Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, Environment, and Personality." Science, vol. 264, 1994, pp. 1700-1701; and Robert Plomin, "The Nature and Nurture of Cognitive Abilities," in Robert J. Sternberg, ed., Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, vol. 4 (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1988), pp. 1-33.
27. Thomas J. Bouchard, "Genes, Environment, and Personality." Science, vol. 264, 1994, pp. 1700-1701; and Robert Plomin, "The Nature and Nurture of Cognitive Abilities," in Robert J. Sternberg, ed., Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, vol. 4 (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1988), pp. 1-33.
28. Donald Shankweiler et al., "Identifying the Causes of Reading Disability," in Philip B. Gough, Linnea C. Ehri, and Rebecca Treiman, eds., Reading Acquisition (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 275-305.
29. Fletcher et al., op. cit.; and Keith E. Stanovich and Linda S. Siegel, "Phenotypic Performance Profile of Children with Reading Disabilities: A Regression-Based Test of the Phonological-Core Variable-Difference Model," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, 1994, pp. 24-53.
30. Fletcher et al., op. cit.; and Keith E. Stanovich and Linda S. Siegel, "Phenotypic Performance Profile of Children with Reading Disabilities: A Regression-Based Test of the Phonological-Core Variable-Difference Model," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 86, 1994, pp. 24-53.
31. Moats and Lyon, op. cit.
32. Marilyn Jaeger Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990); Jeanne Chall, Stages of Reading Development (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983); and Louise Spear-Swerling and Robert J. Sternberg, "The Road Not Taken: An Integrative Theoretical Model of Reading Disability," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 27, 1994, pp. 91-103, 122.
33. Marilyn Jaeger Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990); Jeanne Chall, Stages of Reading Development (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983); and Louise Spear-Swerling and Robert J. Sternberg, "The Road Not Taken: An Integrative Theoretical Model of Reading Disability," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 27, 1994, pp. 91-103, 122.
34. Marilyn Jaeger Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990); Jeanne Chall, Stages of Reading Development (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983); and Louise Spear-Swerling and Robert J. Sternberg, "The Road Not Taken: An Integrative Theoretical Model of Reading Disability," Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 27, 1994, pp. 91-103, 122.
35. B. Byrne, P. Freebody, and A. Gates, "Longitudinal Data on the Relations of Word-Reading Strategies to Comprehension," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 27, 1992, pp. 140-51.
36. Spear-Swerling and Sternberg, "The Road Not Taken"; and idem, Roads to Reading Disability.
37. Spear-Swerling and Sternberg, "The Road Not Taken"; and idem, Roads to Reading Disability.
38. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
39. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
40. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
41. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
42. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
43. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
44. See, for example, Fletcher et al., op. cit.; Isabelle Y. Liberman and Alvin M. Liberman, "Whole Language Versus Code Emphasis: Underlying Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction," Annals of Dyslexia, vol. 40, 1990, pp. 51-76; Shankweiler et al., op. cit.; Keith E. Stanovich, "Matthew Effect in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 21, 1986, pp. 360-406; idem, "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability"; Stanovich and Siegel, op. cit.; and Frank R. Vellutino and Donna M. Scanion, 'The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification," in Laurence Rieben and Charles A. Perfetti, eds., Learning to Read: Basic Research and Its Implications (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1991), pp. 189-203.
45. Lois G. Dreyer, "The Development of Phonologic and Orthographic Knowledge in Kindergarten Children: Relationship to Emerging Word Reading Ability," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, April 1994.