Collective memory, political nostalgia, and the rhetorical presidency: Bill Clinton's commemoration of the March on Washington, August 28, 1998

Quarterly Journal of Speech

Volumn 86, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 417-437

  Parry Giles, Shawn J ^a   Parry Giles, Trevor ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

Bill Clinton; Civil rights movement; Collective memory; Levinsky scandal; Political culture; Political nostalgia; Rhetorical presidency

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042910287     PISSN: 00335630     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00335630009384308     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. President Clinton presented three speeches in the late summer of 1998 following his grand jury testimony. The first was his statement to the nation following his grand jury testimony on August 17th. This speech was attacked for its failure to adequately express Clinton's regret and contrition and for his condemnation of Kenneth Starr and the Office of Independent Counsel. See "Statement by the President," August 17, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse. gov/uri-res/I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/18/1.text.1. The second speech in this trilogy is the August 28th speech that occupies our attention in this analysis. See "Remarks of the President in Commemoration of the 35th Anniversary of the March on Washington," August 28, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/ I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/31/3. text.1, p. 2 [hereafter, "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98"]. The final speech was delivered to a group of clergy gathered at the White House for the annual presidential prayer breakfast. See "Remarks of the President at Religious Leaders Breakfast," September 11, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/IR2?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/9/11/6. text.2.
2. President Clinton presented three speeches in the late summer of 1998 following his grand jury testimony. The first was his statement to the nation following his grand jury testimony on August 17th. This speech was attacked for its failure to adequately express Clinton's regret and contrition and for his condemnation of Kenneth Starr and the Office of Independent Counsel. See "Statement by the President," August 17, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse. gov/uri-res/I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/18/1.text.1. The second speech in this trilogy is the August 28th speech that occupies our attention in this analysis. See "Remarks of the President in Commemoration of the 35th Anniversary of the March on Washington," August 28, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/ I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/31/3. text.1, p. 2 [hereafter, "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98"]. The final speech was delivered to a group of clergy gathered at the White House for the annual presidential prayer breakfast. See "Remarks of the President at Religious Leaders Breakfast," September 11, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/IR2?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/9/11/6. text.2.
3. President Clinton presented three speeches in the late summer of 1998 following his grand jury testimony. The first was his statement to the nation following his grand jury testimony on August 17th. This speech was attacked for its failure to adequately express Clinton's regret and contrition and for his condemnation of Kenneth Starr and the Office of Independent Counsel. See "Statement by the President," August 17, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse. gov/uri-res/I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/18/1.text.1. The second speech in this trilogy is the August 28th speech that occupies our attention in this analysis. See "Remarks of the President in Commemoration of the 35th Anniversary of the March on Washington," August 28, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/ I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/8/31/3. text.1, p. 2 [hereafter, "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98"]. The final speech was delivered to a group of clergy gathered at the White House for the annual presidential prayer breakfast. See "Remarks of the President at Religious Leaders Breakfast," September 11, 1998, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/IR2?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1998/9/11/6. text.2.
4. There are, of course, notable examples of apologia, including Richard Nixon's "Checkers" speech, Senator Edward Kennedy's response to the Chappaquiddick incident, and Ronald Reagan's address in response to the Iran-contra revelations. For more on apologia, see B.L. Ware and Wil Linkugel, "They Spoke in Defense of Themselves: On the Generic Criticism of Apologia," Quarterly Journal of Speech 59 (1973): 273-83.
5. David Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma: A Four-and-a-Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 107. A collection of commentaries about Clinton's August 17th speech can be found online at The American Communication Journal 2.2 (1999). The issue features comments by William Benoit, Lewis Glinert, J. Michael Hogan, Bruce Gronbeck, and Amos Kiewe. The American Communication Journal is found at http:// www.americancomm.org/˜aca/acjdata/vol2/Iss2/editorials/.
6. David Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma: A Four-and-a-Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 107. A collection of commentaries about Clinton's August 17th speech can be found online at The American Communication Journal 2.2 (1999). The issue features comments by William Benoit, Lewis Glinert, J. Michael Hogan, Bruce Gronbeck, and Amos Kiewe. The American Communication Journal is found at http:// www.americancomm.org/˜aca/acjdata/vol2/Iss2/editorials/.
7. David Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma: A Four-and-a-Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 107. A collection of commentaries about Clinton's August 17th speech can be found online at The American Communication Journal 2.2 (1999). The issue features comments by William Benoit, Lewis Glinert, J. Michael Hogan, Bruce Gronbeck, and Amos Kiewe. The American Communication Journal is found at http:// www.americancomm.org/˜aca/acjdata/vol2/Iss2/editorials/.
8. The authorship and drafting process of the August 28th address are discussed in James Carney and Karen Tumulty, "Stormy Weather," Time, September 7, 1998, available at http://cgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/1/dom/980907/ nation.stormy_weather.t8a.html. Clinton's authorship of all of the public statements about the Lewinsky affair was confirmed by Michael Waldman, director of the White House Office of Speechwriters, personal communication, Washington, DC, December 5, 1998. Indeed, Clinton even alludes to his authorship of the speech when he asks the audience for their patience: "I'll try to do it [give the speech] without taking my spectacles out, but I don't write very well and I don't read too well as I get older." See "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2 (emphasis added).
9. The only specific discussion of the rhetorical use of nostalgia is Stephen P. Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism: The Therapeutic and Deliberative Functions of Nostalgic Appeals in Edward Kennedy's Address to the 1980 Democratic National Convention," Southern Communication Journal 55 (1990): 175-92.
10. See Carole Blair, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, Jr., "Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype," Quarterly Journal of Speech 77 (1991): 263-88, Greg Dickinson, "Memories for Sale: Nostalgia and the Construction of Identity in Old Pasadena," Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1997): 1-27; Cheryl R. Jorgensen-Earp and Lori A. Lanzilotti, "Public Memory and Private Grief: The Construction of Shrines at the Sites of Public Tragedy," Quarterly Journal of Speech 84 (1998): 150-70; and Tamar Katriel, "Sites of Memory: Discourses of the Past in Israeli Pioneering Settlement Museums," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 1-20.
11. See Carole Blair, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, Jr., "Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype," Quarterly Journal of Speech 77 (1991): 263-88, Greg Dickinson, "Memories for Sale: Nostalgia and the Construction of Identity in Old Pasadena," Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1997): 1-27; Cheryl R. Jorgensen-Earp and Lori A. Lanzilotti, "Public Memory and Private Grief: The Construction of Shrines at the Sites of Public Tragedy," Quarterly Journal of Speech 84 (1998): 150-70; and Tamar Katriel, "Sites of Memory: Discourses of the Past in Israeli Pioneering Settlement Museums," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 1-20.
12. See Carole Blair, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, Jr., "Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype," Quarterly Journal of Speech 77 (1991): 263-88, Greg Dickinson, "Memories for Sale: Nostalgia and the Construction of Identity in Old Pasadena," Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1997): 1-27; Cheryl R. Jorgensen-Earp and Lori A. Lanzilotti, "Public Memory and Private Grief: The Construction of Shrines at the Sites of Public Tragedy," Quarterly Journal of Speech 84 (1998): 150-70; and Tamar Katriel, "Sites of Memory: Discourses of the Past in Israeli Pioneering Settlement Museums," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 1-20.
13. See Carole Blair, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, Jr., "Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype," Quarterly Journal of Speech 77 (1991): 263-88, Greg Dickinson, "Memories for Sale: Nostalgia and the Construction of Identity in Old Pasadena," Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1997): 1-27; Cheryl R. Jorgensen-Earp and Lori A. Lanzilotti, "Public Memory and Private Grief: The Construction of Shrines at the Sites of Public Tragedy," Quarterly Journal of Speech 84 (1998): 150-70; and Tamar Katriel, "Sites of Memory: Discourses of the Past in Israeli Pioneering Settlement Museums," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 1-20.
14. Barbie Zelizer, "Reading the Past Against the Grain: The Shape of Memory Studies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 12 (1995): 214. See also Steven Knapp, "Collective Memory and the Actual Past," Representations 26 (1989): 123-49; and Barbie Zelizer, Covering the Body: The Kennedy Assassination, the Media, and the Shaping of Collective Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
15. Barbie Zelizer, "Reading the Past Against the Grain: The Shape of Memory Studies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 12 (1995): 214. See also Steven Knapp, "Collective Memory and the Actual Past," Representations 26 (1989): 123-49; and Barbie Zelizer, Covering the Body: The Kennedy Assassination, the Media, and the Shaping of Collective Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
16. Barbie Zelizer, "Reading the Past Against the Grain: The Shape of Memory Studies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 12 (1995): 214. See also Steven Knapp, "Collective Memory and the Actual Past," Representations 26 (1989): 123-49; and Barbie Zelizer, Covering the Body: The Kennedy Assassination, the Media, and the Shaping of Collective Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
17. Maurice Halbwachs, The Collective Memory (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1980), 59.
18. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 224-5.
19. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 232.
20. Richard Johnson, Gregor McLennan, Bill Schwartz, and David Sutton, Making Histories: Studies in History-Writing and Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), 8.
21. Stephen H. Browne, "Reading Public Memory in Daniel Webster's Plymouth Rock Oration," Western Journal of Communication 57 (1993): 466. For more on the role of memory in political argument, see J. Robert Cox, "Memory, Critical Theory, and the Argument from History," Argumentation & Advocacy 27 (1990): 1-13. Browne has further explored the power of public memory to "fashion the past to partisan and selective ends" in Stephen H. Browne, "Remembering Crispus Attacks: Race, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Commemoration," Quarterly Journal of Speech 85 (1999): 169-87.
22. Stephen H. Browne, "Reading Public Memory in Daniel Webster's Plymouth Rock Oration," Western Journal of Communication 57 (1993): 466. For more on the role of memory in political argument, see J. Robert Cox, "Memory, Critical Theory, and the Argument from History," Argumentation & Advocacy 27 (1990): 1-13. Browne has further explored the power of public memory to "fashion the past to partisan and selective ends" in Stephen H. Browne, "Remembering Crispus Attacks: Race, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Commemoration," Quarterly Journal of Speech 85 (1999): 169-87.
23. Stephen H. Browne, "Reading Public Memory in Daniel Webster's Plymouth Rock Oration," Western Journal of Communication 57 (1993): 466. For more on the role of memory in political argument, see J. Robert Cox, "Memory, Critical Theory, and the Argument from History," Argumentation & Advocacy 27 (1990): 1-13. Browne has further explored the power of public memory to "fashion the past to partisan and selective ends" in Stephen H. Browne, "Remembering Crispus Attacks: Race, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Commemoration," Quarterly Journal of Speech 85 (1999): 169-87.
24. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 225. In her analysis of the Kennedy assassination, Zelizer ponders and dissects the journalistic claims to authority in the shaping of collective memory. See Zelizer, Covering the Body.
25. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 225. In her analysis of the Kennedy assassination, Zelizer ponders and dissects the journalistic claims to authority in the shaping of collective memory. See Zelizer, Covering the Body.
26. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
27. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
28. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
29. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
30. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
31. See, for instance, Richard J. Ellis, ed. Speaking to the People: The Rhetorical Presidency in Historical Perspective (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998); Wayne Fields, Union of Words: A History of Presidential Eloquence (New York: Free Press, 1996); Carol Gelderman, All the President's Words: The Bully Pulpit and the Creation of the Virtual Presidency (New York: Walker and Company, 1997); Martin J. Medhurst, ed. Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996); Mary Stuckey and Frederick J. Antczak, "The Rhetorical Presidency: Deepening Vision, Widening Exchange," Communication Yearbook 21 (1998): 405-41; and Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
32. Dan Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency: Ten Propositions," Communication Quarterly 35 (1987): 260. We believe Hahn goes too far when he states that all presidential oratory is epideictic. This may have been true with some presidents (Reagan comes to mind), but is too broad to accurately reflect all presidential rhetoric. Much of President Clinton's public discourse is highly deliberative and his testimony before the grand jury on August 17th would certainly qualify as forensic rhetoric. Indeed, Hahn even acknowledges the presence of non-ceremonial presidential speeches, though he believes that such oratory is always crisis-centered.
33. Browne, "Reading Public Memory," 465.
34. Celeste Condit commented persuasively about the varied functions and powers of epideictic oratory. See Celeste Condit, "The Functions of Epideictic: The Boston Massacre Orations as Exemplar," Communication Quarterly 33 (1985): 284-98.
35. Hahn, "The Media and the Presidency," 260.
36. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1.
37. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
38. G. Thomas Goodnight's examination of Ronald Reagan's justifications for U.S. intervention in Central America demonstrates how history and historical narratives are implicated in the justification of policy. See G. Thomas Goodnight, "Reagan, Vietnam, and Central America: Public Memory and the Politics of Fragmentation," in Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency, edited by Martin J. Medhurst (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996), 122-52. Depoe is similarly concerned with the use of nostalgic appeals for political and policy purposes. See Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism." Additionally, as Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson conclude, "memoria, or recollection of a shared past, becomes an exceptionally important resource for epideictic speeches." See Karlyn Kohrs Campbell & Kathleen Hall Jamieson, "Form and Genre in Rhetorical Criticism: An Introduction," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, edited by Karlyn Kohrs Campbell & Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 10.
39. G. Thomas Goodnight's examination of Ronald Reagan's justifications for U.S. intervention in Central America demonstrates how history and historical narratives are implicated in the justification of policy. See G. Thomas Goodnight, "Reagan, Vietnam, and Central America: Public Memory and the Politics of Fragmentation," in Beyond the Rhetorical Presidency, edited by Martin J. Medhurst (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1996), 122-52. Depoe is similarly concerned with the use of nostalgic appeals for political and policy purposes. See Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism." Additionally, as Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson conclude, "memoria, or recollection of a shared past, becomes an exceptionally important resource for epideictic speeches." See Karlyn Kohrs Campbell & Kathleen Hall Jamieson, "Form and Genre in Rhetorical Criticism: An Introduction," in Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action, edited by Karlyn Kohrs Campbell & Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1978), 10.
40. See Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 224-30.
41. For a discussion of the power and evolution of image-based communication, see Mitchell Stephens, The Rise of the Image, the Fall of the Word (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
42. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 226. Nora reflects on the competing uses of memory and history, with memory working as a "perpetually actual phenomenon, a bond tying us to the external present," and history functioning as a "representation of the past." See Pierre Nora, "Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Memoire," Representations 26 (1989): 8.
43. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 226. Nora reflects on the competing uses of memory and history, with memory working as a "perpetually actual phenomenon, a bond tying us to the external present," and history functioning as a "representation of the past." See Pierre Nora, "Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Memoire," Representations 26 (1989): 8.
44. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 227. In the British context, the construction of political consequence through performances of popular memory is discussed in Popular Memory Group, " Popular Memory: Theory, Politics, Method," in Making Histories: Studies in History-Writing and Politics, edited by Richard Johnson, Gregor McLennan, Bill Schwartz, and David Sutton (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), 205-52.
45. Zelizer, "Reading the Past," 227. In the British context, the construction of political consequence through performances of popular memory is discussed in Popular Memory Group, " Popular Memory: Theory, Politics, Method," in Making Histories: Studies in History-Writing and Politics, edited by Richard Johnson, Gregor McLennan, Bill Schwartz, and David Sutton (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), 205-52.
46. Browne, "Reading Public Memory," 465.
47. Fred Davis, Yearning for Yesterday: A Sociology of Nostalgia (New York: Free Press, 1979). Another good introduction to the concept of nostalgia is Stuart Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," Cultural Studies 9 (1995): 453-64.
48. Fred Davis, Yearning for Yesterday: A Sociology of Nostalgia (New York: Free Press, 1979). Another good introduction to the concept of nostalgia is Stuart Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," Cultural Studies 9 (1995): 453-64.
49. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
50. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
51. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
52. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
53. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
54. The psychological and psychoanalytic dimensions of nostalgia are explained in Eugene B. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," American Imago 42 (1985): 371-83; Janice Doane & Devon Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference (New York and London: Methuen, 1987); Mario Jacoby, The Longing for Paradise: Psychological Perspectives on an Archetype, translated by Myron B. Gubitz (Boston: Sigo Press, 1985); and David S. Werman, "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1977): 387-98. Renata Rosaldo disputes the idea that nostalgia is a latent or natural human characteristic when he notes that it is a peculiarly Western concept. He concludes that the absence of nostalgia as a concept in other cultures undermines claims that this psychological attribute is "natural or pan-human." See Renato Rosaldo, "Imperialist Nostalgia," Representations 26 (1989): 109. The Westernness of nostalgia is also noted in Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, "The Dimensions of Nostalgia," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1-17.
55. Werman "Normal and Pathological Nostalgia," 393.
56. Halbwachs, The Collective Memory, 83.
57. Fred Davis, "Nostalgia, Identity, and the Current Nostalgia Wave," Journal of Popular Culture 11 (1977): 422. For a discussion of the perils of nostalgia from a feminist perspective, see Doane & Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference; and Gayle Greene, "Feminist Fiction and the Uses of Memory," Signs 16 (1991): 290-321.
58. Fred Davis, "Nostalgia, Identity, and the Current Nostalgia Wave," Journal of Popular Culture 11 (1977): 422. For a discussion of the perils of nostalgia from a feminist perspective, see Doane & Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference; and Gayle Greene, "Feminist Fiction and the Uses of Memory," Signs 16 (1991): 290-321.
59. Fred Davis, "Nostalgia, Identity, and the Current Nostalgia Wave," Journal of Popular Culture 11 (1977): 422. For a discussion of the perils of nostalgia from a feminist perspective, see Doane & Hodges, Nostalgia and Sexual Difference; and Gayle Greene, "Feminist Fiction and the Uses of Memory," Signs 16 (1991): 290-321.
60. Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism," 179. The political nature of nostalgia is also the subject of Wendy Wheeler, "Nostalgia Isn't Nasty: The Postmodernising of Parliamentary Democracy," in Altered States: Postmodernism, Politics, Culture, edited by Mark Perryman (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1994), 94-112.
61. Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism," 179. The political nature of nostalgia is also the subject of Wendy Wheeler, "Nostalgia Isn't Nasty: The Postmodernising of Parliamentary Democracy," in Altered States: Postmodernism, Politics, Culture, edited by Mark Perryman (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1994), 94-112.
62. Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," 454. See also David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
63. Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," 454. See also David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
64. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
65. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
66. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
67. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
68. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
69. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
70. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
71. Ronald Reagan, for instance, skillfully fused his political persona with a nostalgic manipulation of America's history. Reagan's sense of myth, nostalgia, and narrative are well documented and often criticized. As David Lowenthal concludes, "Reagan's invention of the American past, as of his own, was a necessary myth, part of the age-old American need to deny sin and escape history. His fantasies were acceptable because both he and his people genuinely held them." See David Lowenthal, "Nostalgia Tells It Like It Wasn't," in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, edited by Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1989), 26. See also James Combs, The Reagan Range: The Nostalgic Myth in American Politics (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1993); Walter R. Fisher, "Romantic Democracy, Ronald Reagan, and Presidential Heroes," Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310; Sara Russell Hankins, "Archetypal Alloy: Reagan's Rhetorical Image," Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 33-43; Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991); William F. Lewis, "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-79; Michael Paul Rogin, Ronald Reagan the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
72. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1.
73. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
74. Davis, "Nostalgia, Identity, and the Current Nostalgia Wave," 415.
75. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1.
76. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1-2.
77. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2 (emphasis added).
78. "Statement by the President."
79. Just a few days later, on September 11th, Clinton appeared at a White House prayer breakfast to pray for forgiveness for his transgressions, again shifting his public persona by claiming the religious high ground. In both cases, Clinton uses the respective events to explain and excuse his behavior in the Lewinsky matter. See "Remarks of the President at Religious Leaders Breakfast." Interestingly, Clinton represents his personal authorship of this statement in much the same way he references it in the August 28th speech-he refers to his need to use glasses to read his own writing.
80. Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," 455. Depoe notes that nostalgia may provide a community with a positive and therapeutic healing of divisions, a function evident in Clinton's address of August 28th. See Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism," 179.
81. Tannock, "Nostalgia Critique," 455. Depoe notes that nostalgia may provide a community with a positive and therapeutic healing of divisions, a function evident in Clinton's address of August 28th. See Depoe, "Requiem for Liberalism," 179.
82. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
83. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
84. "Remarksof the President, 8/28/98," 3.
85. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
86. Daniels, "Nostalgia and Hidden Meaning," 379.
87. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 3.
88. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 3.
89. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 3.
90. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 3.
91. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4. This passage is strikingly reminiscent of a scene from Rob Reiner's film The American President, where President Andrew Shepherd (Michael Douglas) scolds his advisors who calculate the political value of a bombing against Libya. Shepherd references a night shift worker going about his business that is bombed and killed because of the President's actions. Of course, Shepherd is a noble and admirable character. Clinton's invocation of this particular cinematic parallel militates against charges that his bombing of Afghanistan and the Sudan functioned as a Wag the Dog maneuver to divert attention from the Lewinsky scandal.
92. Jeff D. Bass, "Becoming the Past: The Rationale of Renewal and the Annulment of History," in Argument in Transition: Proceedings of the Third Summer Conference on Argumentation, edited by David Zarefsky, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Jack Rhodes (Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association, 1983), 305.
93. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4.
94. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
95. Clinton reveals the unique and private nature of this story when he says, "I don't think I've ever spoken about this in public before." See "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4.
96. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4.
97. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4.
98. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
99. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
100. "Statement by the President," 1-2.
101. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
102. Murray Edelman, Constructing the Political Spectacle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 76-7.
103. Clinton is taking, in this passage, a "comic" approach to his difficulties in the Lewinsky matter. A comic approach differs from a "tragic" one in that the rhetor recognizes contingency and humanness and achieves transcendence through the acknowledgment of human weakness and foible. The "tragic" frame would strive for absolute causality, and would require sacrifice and purification for the ritual to reach completion. See Kenneth Burke, Attitudes Toward History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); and A. Cheree Carlson, "Gandhi and the Comic Frame: 'Ad Bellum Purificandum,' " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 446-55.
104. Clinton is taking, in this passage, a "comic" approach to his difficulties in the Lewinsky matter. A comic approach differs from a "tragic" one in that the rhetor recognizes contingency and humanness and achieves transcendence through the acknowledgment of human weakness and foible. The "tragic" frame would strive for absolute causality, and would require sacrifice and purification for the ritual to reach completion. See Kenneth Burke, Attitudes Toward History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); and A. Cheree Carlson, "Gandhi and the Comic Frame: 'Ad Bellum Purificandum,' " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 446-55.
105. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
106. "During the 1996 campaign, Clinton published a book entitled Between Hope and History. This manifesto borrowed from the Progressive era of Theodore Roosevelt while simultaneously advocating the construction of metaphorical and ubiquitous bridges to the 21st century. It made strong use of political nostalgia to warrant particular and specific claims for the future. The book reflected, at bottom, the enduring duality in Bill Clinton between the past and the future. See President Bill Clinton, Between Hope and History: Meeting America's Challenges for the 21st Century (New York: Times Books, 1996).
107. Most accounts of the "feminine style" note that certain characteristics of this style (its inductive and ornamental flavor, its quest for identification with the audience and its frequent use of personal examples) are derived from the unique experiences common in the socialization and activities of girls and women. For more on the "feminine style" of rhetoric, see Jane Blankenship and Deborah C. Robson, "A 'Feminine Style' in Women's Political Discourse: An Exploratory Essay," Communication Quarterly 43 (1995): 353-66; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, "The Discursive Performance of Femininity: Hating Hillary," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1 (1998): 1-19; Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286-302; Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age: The Transformation of Political Speechmaking (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and ShawnJ. Parry-Giles and Trevor Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics and Presidential Image Construction: A Reassessment of the 'Feminine Style,' " Communication Monographs 63 (1996): 337-53.
108. Most accounts of the "feminine style" note that certain characteristics of this style (its inductive and ornamental flavor, its quest for identification with the audience and its frequent use of personal examples) are derived from the unique experiences common in the socialization and activities of girls and women. For more on the "feminine style" of rhetoric, see Jane Blankenship and Deborah C. Robson, "A 'Feminine Style' in Women's Political Discourse: An Exploratory Essay," Communication Quarterly 43 (1995): 353-66; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, "The Discursive Performance of Femininity: Hating Hillary," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1 (1998): 1-19; Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286-302; Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age: The Transformation of Political Speechmaking (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and ShawnJ. Parry-Giles and Trevor Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics and Presidential Image Construction: A Reassessment of the 'Feminine Style,' " Communication Monographs 63 (1996): 337-53.
109. Most accounts of the "feminine style" note that certain characteristics of this style (its inductive and ornamental flavor, its quest for identification with the audience and its frequent use of personal examples) are derived from the unique experiences common in the socialization and activities of girls and women. For more on the "feminine style" of rhetoric, see Jane Blankenship and Deborah C. Robson, "A 'Feminine Style' in Women's Political Discourse: An Exploratory Essay," Communication Quarterly 43 (1995): 353-66; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, "The Discursive Performance of Femininity: Hating Hillary," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1 (1998): 1-19; Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286-302; Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age: The Transformation of Political Speechmaking (New York: Oxford University
110. Most accounts of the "feminine style" note that certain characteristics of this style (its inductive and ornamental flavor, its quest for identification with the audience and its frequent use of personal examples) are derived from the unique experiences common in the socialization and activities of girls and women. For more on the "feminine style" of rhetoric, see Jane Blankenship and Deborah C. Robson, "A 'Feminine Style' in Women's Political Discourse: An Exploratory Essay," Communication Quarterly 43 (1995): 353-66; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, "The Discursive Performance of Femininity: Hating Hillary," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1 (1998): 1-19; Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286-302; Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age: The Transformation of Political Speechmaking (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and ShawnJ. Parry-Giles and Trevor Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics and Presidential Image Construction: A Reassessment of the 'Feminine Style,' " Communication Monographs 63 (1996): 337-53.
111. Most accounts of the "feminine style" note that certain characteristics of this style (its inductive and ornamental flavor, its quest for identification with the audience and its frequent use of personal examples) are derived from the unique experiences common in the socialization and activities of girls and women. For more on the "feminine style" of rhetoric, see Jane Blankenship and Deborah C. Robson, "A 'Feminine Style' in Women's Political Discourse: An Exploratory Essay," Communication Quarterly 43 (1995): 353-66; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, "The Discursive Performance of Femininity: Hating Hillary," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1 (1998): 1-19; Bonnie J. Dow and Mari Boor Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment in the Rhetoric of Ann Richards," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 286-302; Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age: The Transformation of Political Speechmaking (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); and ShawnJ. Parry-Giles and Trevor Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics and Presidential Image Construction: A Reassessment of the 'Feminine Style,' " Communication Monographs 63 (1996): 337-53.
112. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
113. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1.
114. Dow and Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment," 298.
115. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 2.
116. Dow and Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment," 294. See also Cindy L. Griffin, "Rhetoricizing Alienation: Mary Wollstonecraft and the Rhetorical Construction of Women's Oppression," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 293-312.
117. Dow and Tonn, " 'Feminine Style' and Political Judgment," 294. See also Cindy L. Griffin, "Rhetoricizing Alienation: Mary Wollstonecraft and the Rhetorical Construction of Women's Oppression," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 293-312.
118. When we speak of "masculine" themes and subjects, we are generally referring to a "hegemonic masculinity" at the root of much political discourse. Descriptions and typologies of "hegemonic masculinity" are found in Robert Hanke, "Hegemonic Masculinity in thirtysomething," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 231-48; Parry Giles & Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics," 342-48; and Nick Trujillo, "Hegemonic Masculinity on the Mound: Media Representations of Nolan Ryan and American Sports Culture," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 290-308.
119. When we speak of "masculine" themes and subjects, we are generally referring to a "hegemonic masculinity" at the root of much political discourse. Descriptions and typologies of "hegemonic masculinity" are found in Robert Hanke, "Hegemonic Masculinity in thirtysomething," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 231-48; Parry Giles & Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics," 342-48; and Nick Trujillo, "Hegemonic Masculinity on the Mound: Media Representations of Nolan Ryan and American Sports Culture," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 290-308.
120. When we speak of "masculine" themes and subjects, we are generally referring to a "hegemonic masculinity" at the root of much political discourse. Descriptions and typologies of "hegemonic masculinity" are found in Robert Hanke, "Hegemonic Masculinity in thirtysomething," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 7 (1990): 231-48; Parry Giles & Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics," 342-48; and Nick Trujillo, "Hegemonic Masculinity on the Mound: Media Representations of Nolan Ryan and American Sports Culture," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 290-308.
121. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 1.
122. The linguistic resources used to marginalize and de-emphasize women-and the outright violence committed against them-are illustrated in Tonn, et al.'s, analysis of a 1988 shooting in Maine. They explore how the woman shot is "symbolically killed" in the press and the trial following the incident. See Mari Boor Tonn, Valerie A. Endress, and John N. Diamond, "Hunting and Heritage on Trial: A Dramatistic Debate Over Tragedy, Tradition, and Territory," Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 165-81.
123. This theme is developed more fully in connection with Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign film in Parry-Giles and Parry-Giles, "Gendered Politics."
124. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4.
125. That King and others in the civil rights movement may have modified their steadfast commitment to nonviolence is discussed in Edward C. Appel, "The Rhetoric of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.: Comedy and Context in Tragic Collision," Western Journal of Communication 61 (1997): 376-402;
126. and Herbert W. Simons, "Requirements, Problems, and Strategies: A Theory of Persuasion for Social Movements," Quarterly Journal of Speech 56 (1970): 1-11.
127. These conclusions were offered by Michael Waldman, director of the White House Office of Speech writers, and J. Terry Edmonds, former Clinton speechwriter, at a Smithsonian Institution seminar entitled "All the President's Words," December 5, 1998. As Waldman said at the seminar, "the issue of race is true to him [Clinton]." George Stephanopoulos offers a similar assessment when he writes "Bill Clinton inspired me most when he spoke about race." See George Stephanopoulos, All Too Human: A Political Education (Boston: Little, Brown, 1999), 362.
128. See Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma, 18. Toni Morrison, writing in The New Yorker, called Clinton America's first "black" president. See Toni Morrison, "The Talk of the Town," The New Yorker, October 5, 1998, p. 31.
129. See Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma, 18. Toni Morrison, writing in The New Yorker, called Clinton America's first "black" president. See Toni Morrison, "The Talk of the Town," The New Yorker, October 5, 1998, p. 31.
130. See Maraniss, The Clinton Enigma, 18. Toni Morrison, writing in The New Yorker, called Clinton America's first "black" president. See Toni Morrison, "The Talk of the Town," The New Yorker, October 5, 1998, p. 31.
131. John M. Murphy, "Inventing Authority: Bill Clinton, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Orchestration of Rhetorical Traditions," Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1997): 71-89.
132. Ironically, Clinton and his family turned to Jackson for advice and counsel when the Lewinsky scandal reached its zenith in the late summer of 1998.
133. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 3.
134. See Thomas K. Nakayama and Robert L. Krizek, "Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric," Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 291-309.
135. Clinton similarly racializes the Texas man who was murdered even as the President fails to identify the racial identity of the murderers. For a trenchant explanation of the concept and social manipulation of "blackness," see Herman Gray, Watching Race: Television and the Struggle for "Blackness" (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1995).
136. Stephanopoulos, All Too Human, 362-75.
137. Various explanations for this phenomenon are offered in the following: Roderick P. Hart, Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Trevor Parry-Giles and Shawn J. Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia, Presidential Campaigning, and the Intimacy of American Politics," Communication Studies 47 (1996): 191 -205; and Sanford F. Schram, "The Post-Modem Presidency and the Grammar of Electronic Electioneering," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 210-16.
138. Various explanations for this phenomenon are offered in the following: Roderick P. Hart, Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Trevor Parry-Giles and Shawn J. Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia, Presidential Campaigning, and the Intimacy of American Politics," Communication Studies 47 (1996): 191 -205; and Sanford F. Schram, "The Post-Modem Presidency and the Grammar of Electronic Electioneering," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 210-16.
139. Various explanations for this phenomenon are offered in the following: Roderick P. Hart, Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Trevor Parry-Giles and Shawn J. Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia, Presidential Campaigning, and the Intimacy of American Politics," Communication Studies 47 (1996): 191 -205; and Sanford F. Schram, "The Post-Modem Presidency and the Grammar of Electronic Electioneering," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 210-16.
140. Various explanations for this phenomenon are offered in the following: Roderick P. Hart, Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern Voter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) Joshua Meyrowitz, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Trevor Parry-Giles and Shawn J. Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia, Presidential Campaigning, and the Intimacy of American Politics," Communication Studies 47 (1996): 191 -205; and Sanford F. Schram, "The Post-Modem Presidency and the Grammar of Electronic Electioneering," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 210-16.
141. See Harry Thomason and Linda Bloodworth-Thomason (producers), The Man From Hope (West Lafayette, IN: Public Affairs Video Archives, 1992); Parry-Giles & Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia"; and Thomas Rosteck, "The Intertextuality of 'The Man From Hope': Bill Clinton as Person, as Persona, as Star?," in Bill Clinton on Stump, State, and Stage: The Rhetorical Road to the White House, edited by Stephen A. Smidi (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 223-48.
142. See Harry Thomason and Linda Bloodworth-Thomason (producers), The Man From Hope (West Lafayette, IN: Public Affairs Video Archives, 1992); Parry-Giles & Parry-Giles, "Political Scopophilia"; and Thomas Rosteck, "The Intertextuality of 'The Man From Hope': Bill Clinton as Person, as Persona, as Star?," in Bill Clinton on Stump, State, and Stage: The Rhetorical Road to the White House, edited by Stephen A. Smidi (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 223-48.
143. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 4. He later would use this story in his speech to the community of Littleton, Colorado, in the wake of the Columbine High School shootings. See "Remarks by the President and the First Lady to the Columbine High School Community," May 20, 1999, available at http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-res/I2R?urn: pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1999/5/21/22.text.1.
144. "Remarks of the President, 8/28/98," 5.
145. See Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, translated by Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
146. See Hart, Seducing America.