Socioeconomic status, school quality, and national economic development: A cross-national analysis of the "Heyneman-Loxley effect" on mathematics and science achievement

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 46, Issue 3, 2002, Pages

  Baker, David P ^a   Goesling, Brian ^a   Letendre, Gerald K ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042853480     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/341159     Document Type: Review

References (66)

1. James S. Coleman, Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, James McPartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederick D. Weinfall, and Robert L. York, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966); Bridget Plowden, Children and Their Primary Schools (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967); G. F. Peaker, The Plowden Children Four Years Later (London: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales, 1971).
2. James S. Coleman, Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, James McPartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederick D. Weinfall, and Robert L. York, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966); Bridget Plowden, Children and Their Primary Schools (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967); G. F. Peaker, The Plowden Children Four Years Later (London: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales, 1971).
3. James S. Coleman, Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, James McPartland, Alexander M. Mood, Frederick D. Weinfall, and Robert L. York, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966); Bridget Plowden, Children and Their Primary Schools (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967); G. F. Peaker, The Plowden Children Four Years Later (London: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales, 1971).
4. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, eds., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993); Annette Lareau, "Social Class Differences in Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital," Sociology of Education 60, no. 2 (1987): 73-85; Barbara Schneider and James S. Coleman, Parents, Their Children, and Schools (Boulder, Colo.; Westview, 1993); Joyce L. Epstein, School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998).
5. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, eds., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993); Annette Lareau, "Social Class Differences in Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital," Sociology of Education 60, no. 2 (1987): 73-85; Barbara Schneider and James S. Coleman, Parents, Their Children, and Schools (Boulder, Colo.; Westview, 1993); Joyce L. Epstein, School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998).
6. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, eds., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993); Annette Lareau, "Social Class Differences in Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital," Sociology of Education 60, no. 2 (1987): 73-85; Barbara Schneider and James S. Coleman, Parents, Their Children, and Schools (Boulder, Colo.; Westview, 1993); Joyce L. Epstein, School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998).
7. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld, eds., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993); Annette Lareau, "Social Class Differences in Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital," Sociology of Education 60, no. 2 (1987): 73-85; Barbara Schneider and James S. Coleman, Parents, Their Children, and Schools (Boulder, Colo.; Westview, 1993); Joyce L. Epstein, School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998).
8. Gilbert R. Austin and Herbert Garber, eds., Research on Exemplary Schools (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1995); William Brookover, Charles Beady, Patricia Flood, John Schweitzer, and Joe Wisenbaker, School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference (New York: Praeger, 1979); Michael Rutter, Barbara Maughan, Peter Mortimore, and Janet Ouston, Fifteen Thousand Hours (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Cornelius Riordan, Equality and Achievement: An Introduction to the Sociology of Education (New York: Longman, 1997).
9. Gilbert R. Austin and Herbert Garber, eds., Research on Exemplary Schools (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1995); William Brookover, Charles Beady, Patricia Flood, John Schweitzer, and Joe Wisenbaker, School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference (New York: Praeger, 1979); Michael Rutter, Barbara Maughan, Peter Mortimore, and Janet Ouston, Fifteen Thousand Hours (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Cornelius Riordan, Equality and Achievement: An Introduction to the Sociology of Education (New York: Longman, 1997).
10. Gilbert R. Austin and Herbert Garber, eds., Research on Exemplary Schools (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1995); William Brookover, Charles Beady, Patricia Flood, John Schweitzer, and Joe Wisenbaker, School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference (New York: Praeger, 1979); Michael Rutter, Barbara Maughan, Peter Mortimore, and Janet Ouston, Fifteen Thousand Hours (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Cornelius Riordan, Equality and Achievement: An Introduction to the Sociology of Education (New York: Longman, 1997).
11. Gilbert R. Austin and Herbert Garber, eds., Research on Exemplary Schools (Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1995); William Brookover, Charles Beady, Patricia Flood, John Schweitzer, and Joe Wisenbaker, School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference (New York: Praeger, 1979); Michael Rutter, Barbara Maughan, Peter Mortimore, and Janet Ouston, Fifteen Thousand Hours (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Cornelius Riordan, Equality and Achievement: An Introduction to the Sociology of Education (New York: Longman, 1997).
12. Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, eds., The Political Construction of Education: The State, School Expansion, and Economic Change (New York: Praeger, 1992); Theodore W. Schultz, Investment in Human Capital: The Role of Education and of Research (New York: Free Press, 1971).
13. Bruce Fuller and Richard Rubinson, eds., The Political Construction of Education: The State, School Expansion, and Economic Change (New York: Praeger, 1992); Theodore W. Schultz, Investment in Human Capital: The Role of Education and of Research (New York: Free Press, 1971).
14. Claudia Buchman and Emily Hannum, "Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: Review of Theories and Research," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 77-102; Colette Chabbott and Francisco O. Ramirez, "Development and Education," in Handbook of Sociology of Education, ed. Maureen T. Hallinan (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), pp. 163-87; Aaron Benavot, "Curricular Content, Educational Expansion, and Economic Growth," Comparative Education Review 36, no. 2 (1992): 150-74; John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, eds., National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); George Psacharopoulos and Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
15. Claudia Buchman and Emily Hannum, "Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: Review of Theories and Research," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 77-102; Colette Chabbott and Francisco O. Ramirez, "Development and Education," in Handbook of Sociology of Education, ed. Maureen T. Hallinan (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), pp. 163-87; Aaron Benavot, "Curricular Content, Educational Expansion, and Economic Growth," Comparative Education Review 36, no. 2 (1992): 150-74; John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, eds., National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); George Psacharopoulos and Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
16. Claudia Buchman and Emily Hannum, "Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: Review of Theories and Research," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 77-102; Colette Chabbott and Francisco O. Ramirez, "Development and Education," in Handbook of Sociology of Education, ed. Maureen T. Hallinan (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), pp. 163-87; Aaron Benavot, "Curricular Content, Educational Expansion, and Economic Growth," Comparative Education Review 36, no. 2 (1992): 150-74; John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, eds., National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); George Psacharopoulos and Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
17. Claudia Buchman and Emily Hannum, "Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: Review of Theories and Research," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 77-102; Colette Chabbott and Francisco O. Ramirez, "Development and Education," in Handbook of Sociology of Education, ed. Maureen T. Hallinan (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), pp. 163-87; Aaron Benavot, "Curricular Content, Educational Expansion, and Economic Growth," Comparative Education Review 36, no. 2 (1992): 150-74; John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, eds., National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); George Psacharopoulos and Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
18. Claudia Buchman and Emily Hannum, "Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: Review of Theories and Research," Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001): 77-102; Colette Chabbott and Francisco O. Ramirez, "Development and Education," in Handbook of Sociology of Education, ed. Maureen T. Hallinan (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), pp. 163-87; Aaron Benavot, "Curricular Content, Educational Expansion, and Economic Growth," Comparative Education Review 36, no. 2 (1992): 150-74; John W. Meyer and Michael T. Hannan, eds., National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); George Psacharopoulos and Maureen Woodhall, Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
19. For examples of the first stream of research, see Bruce Fuller and Prema Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom, Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 119-57; Marlaine E. Lockheed and Barbara Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); for the second stream, see Meyer and Hannan, eds.; Fuller and Rubinson, eds.
20. For examples of the first stream of research, see Bruce Fuller and Prema Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom, Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 119-57; Marlaine E. Lockheed and Barbara Bruns, "School Effects on Achievement in Secondary Mathematics and Portuguese in Brazil," Policy, Research, and External Affairs Working Papers WPS 525 (World Bank, Population and Human Resources Department, Washington, D.C., 1990); for the second stream, see Meyer and Hannan, eds.; Fuller and Rubinson, eds.
21. Stephen P. Heyneman and William A. Loxley, "Influences on Academic Achievement across High and Low Income Countries: A Re-analysis of IEA Data," Sociology of Education 55, no. 1 (1982): 13-21, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High- and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88, no. 6 (1983): 1162-94.
22. Stephen P. Heyneman and William A. Loxley, "Influences on Academic Achievement across High and Low Income Countries: A Re-analysis of IEA Data," Sociology of Education 55, no. 1 (1982): 13-21, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High- and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88, no. 6 (1983): 1162-94.
23. Coleman et al.; Peaker.
24. The 1970s studies contrast what Heyneman and Loxley call "preschool effects" of family SES plus student age and gender on achievement with the effects of school resources. Analytically, we do the same here, but, since family SES accounts for most of the preschool effects, we confine the conceptual discussion to that factor.
25. For example, the second round of International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Studies in the early 1980s did not include enough variation in national development to continue this analysis.
26. Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality."
27. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
28. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
29. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
30. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
31. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
32. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
33. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
34. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
35. Bruce Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World," Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92. See also Jane Armitage, Joao Batista Fereirra Gomes Neto, Ralph W. Harbison, Donald B. Holsinger, and Raimundo Helio Leite, School Quality and Achievement in Rural Brazil (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); L. C. Comber and John P. Keeves, Science Education in Nineteen Countries (New York: Halstead, 1973); Isahak Bin Haron, "Social Class and Educational Achievement in a Plural Society: Peninsular Malaysia" (doctoral diss., University of Chicago, 1977); Stephen P. Heyneman, "Influence on Academic Achievement: A Comparison of Results from Uganda and More Industrialized Societies," Sociology of Education 49, no. 3 (1976): 200-211; Stephen P. Heyneman and Dean T. Jamison, "Student Learning in Uganda: Textbook Availability and Other Factors, " Comparative Education Review 24, no. 2 (1980): 206-20; Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality"; Dean T. Jamison, Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda, and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement," Journal of Educational Psychology 73, no. 4 (1983): 556-67; Marlaine E. Lockheed, Stephen C. Vail, and Bruce Fuller, "How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 8, no. 4 (1986): 379-92.
36. Other reasons for the HL effect were speculated on in the original papers, such as the notion that the size and importance of public labor sectors and the civil service in developing countries tend to "tighten" the connections between school achievement at all levels and future employment opportunities.
37. Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of UNICEF, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Consensus: International Development Professionals and the World Conference on Education for All," International Journal of Education Development 18, no. 3 (1998): 207-18; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis) Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78. Consistent with this is the fact that Heyneman and Loxley undertook their original work as World Bank employees in an effort in the late 1970s to convince policy makers in the economic development sector that national investments in school quality could increase human capital production.
38. Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of UNICEF, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Consensus: International Development Professionals and the World Conference on Education for All," International Journal of Education Development 18, no. 3 (1998): 207-18; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis) Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78. Consistent with this is the fact that Heyneman and Loxley undertook their original work as World Bank employees in an effort in the late 1970s to convince policy makers in the economic development sector that national investments in school quality could increase human capital production.
39. Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of UNICEF, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Colette Chabbott, "Constructing Educational Consensus: International Development Professionals and the World Conference on Education for All," International Journal of Education Development 18, no. 3 (1998): 207-18; Karen Mundy, "Educational Multilateralism and World (Dis) Order," Comparative Education Review 42, no. 4 (1998): 448-78. Consistent with this is the fact that Heyneman and Loxley undertook their original work as World Bank employees in an effort in the late 1970s to convince policy makers in the economic development sector that national investments in school quality could increase human capital production.
40. Private expenditures are not included here, but the point is that there has been an intensification of national expenditures on education over time. See Mun C. Tsang, "Public and Private Costs of Education in Developing Countries," in International Encyclopedia of Economics of Education, ed. Martin Carnoy (Oxford: Pergamon, 1995), pp. 893-98.
41. David P. Baker and Donald B. Holsinger, "Human Capital Formation and School Expansion in Asia," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 37, nos. 1-2 (1996): 159-73; Meyer and Hannan (n. 5 above); Rubinson and Fuller (n. 4 above).
42. David P. Baker and Donald B. Holsinger, "Human Capital Formation and School Expansion in Asia," International Journal of Comparative Sociology 37, nos. 1-2 (1996): 159-73; Meyer and Hannan (n. 5 above); Rubinson and Fuller (n. 4 above).
43. Chabbott; Mundy. This process, no matter how pervasive, should not be considered a simple one. The spreading of school quality in the less-developed world moves with internal and external economic and political trends, but there has been an overall trend of expansion (Bruce Fuller and Stephen P. Heyneman, "Third World School Quality: Current Collapse, Future Potential," Educational Researcher 18, no. 2 [1989]: 12-19).
44. As is standard practice in cross-national educational studies like TIMSS, Belgium is split into two seminational units of Flemish and French.
45. World Bank, World Bank Atlas (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996). Although the original estimation of the HL effect in the 1970s used GNP as an indicator of national economic development, the related but currently more analytically popular measure GDP is used here. Sensitivity analyses (not shown, but available from the authors) show that the choice between GNP and GDP does not significantly affect this study's results.
46. For a detailed discussion of the TIMSS achievement tests, see International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, User Guide for the TIMSS International Database: Primary and Middle School Years, ed. Eugenio J. Gonzalez and Teresa A. Smith (Chestnut Hill, Mass.: TIMSS International Study Center, 1997). Through a process of imputation, five plausible values of math and science achievement levels were estimated for each student. After extensive preliminary analysis showed that the substantive results reported here remain the same for all plausible values and their means, results from just the first plausible value are reported here for ease of computation.
47. In addition to the school resource variables included in the final analysis, preliminary analyses included a number of other measures of school resource quality: five measures of instructional quality, three measures of classroom coverage, the student/teacher ratio, the availability of enrichment activities, and the availability of remedial activities. Because these additional measures did not significantly change any of the major findings and are substantially different from what was available to Heyneman and Loxley, they were omitted from the final models.
48. Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality" (n. 7 above).
49. Anthony S. Bryk and Stephen W. Raudenbush, Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992).
50. 4jk). Error terms for all other student-level relationships are constrained at zero.
51. Error terms are only included in models for the school-level coefficients for SES, the percentage of teachers with 5 or more years experience, the percentage of students absent from school on a typical day, and the percentage of students finishing the school year. Error terms for all other school-level relationships are constrained at zero.
52. Heyneman and Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality." Comparisons of family-background and school-resource regression coefficients from the OLS models confirm the results yielded from the variance-explained statistics. Tables of coefficients for OLS analyses are available from the authors on request.
53. See also K. Schiller, V. Khmelkov, and X.-Q. Wang, "International Differences in the Effects of Family Characteristics on Academic Achievement" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Toronto, 1999).
54. Unpublished analyses noted are available from the authors on request.
55. Abby Rubin Riddell, "An Alternative Approach to the Study of School Effectiveness in Third World Countries," Comparative Education Review 33, no. 4 (1989): 481-97.
56. Hubert M. Blalock, Causal Models in the Social Sciences (New York: Aldine, 1985).
57. A reviewer of an earlier draft suggested that some error could result from the lack of measures of family SES in poor nations in the 1970s that incorporated indicators of traditional agrarian wealth such as livestock. While this is an interesting point, it should be noted that the HL effect was present in less-wealthy nations that were also less traditionally agrarian in the 1970s.
58. Abby Rubin Riddell, "Assessing Designs for School Effectiveness Research and School Improvement in Developing Countries," Comparative Education Review 41, no. 2 (1997): 178-204.
59. Riddell, "An Alternative Approach," p. 490.
60. Aaron Benavot, Yun-Kyung Cha, David Kamens, John W. Meyer, and Suk-Ying Wong, "Knowledge for the Masses: World Models and National Curricula, 1920-1986," American Sociological Review 56, no. 1 (1991): 85-101.
61. Baker and Holsinger (n. 16 above).
62. Aaron Pallas, "The Effects of Schooling on Individual Lives," in Hallinan, ed. (n. 5 above), pp. 499-528; Elchanan Cohn and John T. Addison, "The Economic Returns to Lifelong Learning in OECD Countries," Education Economics 6, no. 3 (1998): 253-307.
63. Aaron Pallas, "The Effects of Schooling on Individual Lives," in Hallinan, ed. (n. 5 above), pp. 499-528; Elchanan Cohn and John T. Addison, "The Economic Returns to Lifelong Learning in OECD Countries," Education Economics 6, no. 3 (1998): 253-307.
64. Personal communication with S. Heyneman.
65. This interesting substantive trend also presents some challenges to the statistical estimation of the changing dynamic between family and school effects. Future research should concentrate on estimating the substantive interaction between family SES and school quality across nations.
66. Suet-Ling Pong, "Trends in Achievement Gains: What Do We Know? " Teachers College Record 99, no. 1 (1997): 23-29.