The creation-evolution debate: Carving creationism in the public mind

Public Understanding of Science

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 173-186

  Park, Hee Joo ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0042833161     PISSN: 09636625     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0963-6625/10/2/302     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. "Public evenly divided between evolutionists, creationists," Gallup poll media release (29 August 1982).
2. E. C. Scott, "Gallup reports high level of belief in creationism," NCSE Reports 13, no. 3 (1993): 9; D. W. Moore, "American support teaching creationism as well as evolution in public schools" Poll Releases, Gallup Poll, August 30, 1999
3. E. C. Scott, "Gallup reports high level of belief in creationism," NCSE Reports 13, no. 3 (1993): 9; D. W. Moore, "American support teaching creationism as well as evolution in public schools" Poll Releases, Gallup Poll, August 30, 1999
4. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
5. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
6. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
7. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
8. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
9. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
10. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
11. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
12. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
13. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the creationist movement in America among historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science, resulting in more than a half-dozen book-length scholarly analyses of the topic from various perspectives. Historical studies of creationism include: E. J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), R. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), G. E. Webb, The Evolution Controwrsy in America (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1994). Sociological and anthropological analysis include: Dorothy Nelkin, The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools (New York: Norton, 1982), R. A. Eve and F. B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991), C. P. Toumey, God's Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), S. Locke, Constructing "The Beginning:" Discourses of Creation Science (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Philosophical analysis includes: P. Kitcher, Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1982), M. Ruse, ed. But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1988), R. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999)
14. Since the middle of the 1990s, we observe the emergence of a different breed of creationism called "Intelligent Design" that adopted different goals and strategies, in which debates did not play a significant role. Therefore I will limit my discussion to the strict creationism in this paper.
15. Institute for Creation Research, Acts & Facts 1, no. 1 (1972).
16. Acts & Facts 4, no. 10 (1975)
17. Henry Morris, the father of modern creationism, acquired a PhD in hydraulics engineering from the University of Minnesota and served as Head of the Civil Engineering Department at the Virginia Polytechnic for thirteen years before he became the first president of the ICR in 1972.
18. Acts & Facts 3, no. 3 (1974); A statistic from the 1977 ICR Annual Report shows this point clearly. While sixty lectures at various campuses of colleges and universities attracted only a total audience of 9,500 during 1977 (average 160 per lecture), twenty-three debates drew a total audience of 25,000 (average 1,100 per debate). That is, the debates drew audiences seven times larger than the lectures did.
19. H. M. Morris, History of Modern Creationism (San Diego: Master Book Publishers, 1984): 261.
20. Acts & Facts 1, no. 1 (1972).
21. Morris, History of Modern Creationism, p. 263.
22. L. R. Godfrey, 'The flood of antievolutionism," in The Natural History Reader in Evolution, ed. N. Eldredge (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987) 216.
23. A book by creationist Luther Sunderland, an aerospace engineer with the General Electric Company, provides an excellent example of how creationists use these disputes to support their case. In 1979, Sunderland interviewed many curators of natural history museums: including Cohn Patterson, a leading cladist, of the British Museum of Natural History in London, Niles Eldredge, the co-formulator of the punctuated equilibrium theory with Stephen Jay Gould, of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, David M. Raup of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, David Pilbeam, a world authority on human evolution, of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale. Sunderland authored a book Darwin's Enigma: Fossils and Other Problems (Santee, CA: Master Book Publishers, 1988) based on these interviews, in which he created a picture that the theory of evolution is in a state of complete chaos. He argued that textbooks and other school materials are completely devoid of this 'very significant scientific information' and that this is only talked about "behind closed doors but not made available to the public." (Darwin's Enigma, 11) The transcripts of those interviews are reproduced in ERIC Document Reproduction Service microfiche ED 228 056, Darwin's Enigma: The Fossil Record.
24. A book by creationist Luther Sunderland, an aerospace engineer with the General Electric Company, provides an excellent example of how creationists use these disputes to support their case. In 1979, Sunderland interviewed many curators of natural history museums: including Cohn Patterson, a leading cladist, of the British Museum of Natural History in London, Niles Eldredge, the co-formulator of the punctuated equilibrium theory with Stephen Jay Gould, of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, David M. Raup of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, David Pilbeam, a world authority on human evolution, of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale. Sunderland authored a book Darwin's Enigma: Fossils and Other Problems (Santee, CA: Master Book Publishers, 1988) based on these interviews, in which he created a picture that the theory of evolution is in a state of complete chaos. He argued that textbooks and other school materials are completely devoid of this 'very significant scientific information' and that this is only talked about "behind closed doors but not made available to the public." (Darwin's Enigma, 11) The transcripts of those interviews are reproduced in ERIC Document Reproduction Service microfiche ED 228 056, Darwin's Enigma: The Fossil Record.
25. Godfrey, "The flood of antievolutionism," p. 216.
26. S. J. Gould, "Evolution as fact and theory," Discover (May 1981): 37.
27. F. Edwords, "To debate or not to debate," The Humanist (July/August 1982): 55.
28. R. Shapiro, Origins: A Skeptic's Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth (Penguin Books, 1986): 266.
29. S. G. Brush to Edwords, 5 August 1982, Edwords Papers, courtesy of the National Center for Science Education.
30. Edwords to Karl D. Fezer, February 24, 1983, Edwords Papers.
31. This episode actually began with some Christian students who attended in Fezer's General Biology course. After attending the course they felt uncomfortable regarding Fezer's explanation of evolutionary theory and came to Reverend Morris (not to be confused with Henry Morris) to seek his council. This prompted him to arrange a debate; K. D. Fezer to H. M. Morris, 25 August 1982, Creation-evolution Archives of Iowa State University of Technology.
32. Fezer to Morris, 27 July 1982, Creation-Evolution Archives of Iowa State University of Technology.
33. Ibid.
34. Morris to Fezer, 18 August 1982, Creation-Evolution Archives.
35. Fezer to Morris, 25 August 1982, Creation-Evolution Archives.
36. Ibid.
37. Morris to Fezer, 13 September 1982, Creation-evolution Archives.
38. All quotes in this paragraph from a letter of F. Edwords to D. Gish, 6 January 1983, Edwords Papers.
39. All quotes in this paragraph from Edwords; ibid.
40. Edwords to Gish, 10 February 1983, Edwords Papers.
41. Edwords to R. Doolittle, 26 August 1981, Edwords Papers.
42. D. Gish, Evolution: The Fossils Say No! (San Diego: Institute for Creation Research, 1973).
43. Edwords to Gish, 25 March 1983, Edwords Papers.
44. Gish to Edwords, 12 April 1983, Edwords Papers.
45. When the creationists wanted to include creationism in the public school science curriculum, they faced the constitutional hurdle of the separation of church and state. In order to circumvent this problem, they separated creationism into scientific creationism and biblical creationism, and asked that only the scientific one should be included. This is where the idea of two different versions of creationism was originally conceived. For a discussion of the origin of scientific creationism, see Chapter 3 of my dissertation Anti-Creationism in America, the University of Melbourne, 1997. As we will see, creationists also used this separation as a tactic to avoid the uncomfortable topics in the debate.
46. Edwords to R. Doolittle, 26 August 1981, Edwords Papers.
47. Edwords to K. D. Fezer, 25 July 1983, Edwords Papers.
48. H. Morris, ed., Scientific Creationism (Creation Life Publishers, San Diego, 1974).
49. Ibid., 12.
50. Many evolutionists emphasized this distinction between evolution as fact and as theory in response to creationists' popular denouncement of evolution as a mere "theory." For instance, S. J. Gould says: "no biologists has been led to doubt the fact that evolution occurred; we are debating how it happened." S. J. Gould, "Evolution as fact and theory," in Science and Creationism, ed. Ashley Montagu (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984): 120.
51. Morris (ed.) Scientific Creationism, 123.
52. Edwords to K. S. Saladin, 17 August 1983, Edwords Papers.
53. Edwords to K. D. Fezer, 25 July 1983, Edwords Papers.
54. F. Awbrey to Edwords, 21 January 1982, Edwords Papers.
55. Quoted in P. J. Hilts, "Creationism back in schools as new science," The Washington Post, 23 July 1981, Al.
56. "Pro and con: How in the world did it all begin?" The San Diego Union, 19 September 1975,
57. reprinted in Acts & Facts 4, no. 9 (1975): 1-2.
58. Students for Origins Research invited Doolittle and Gish to a public debate before a paying audience of approximately 1,500. They debated on the origin of life, the creationists' favorite topic and the topic where Doolittle's international authority came from; Acts & Facts 9, no. 12 (1980): 1.
59. F. Edwords (Creation/Evolution journal), S. Weinberg, and J. Patterson (C/Cs), T. Jukes (a UC Berkeley professor), K. Miller, and D. Milne (two successful debaters for evolution), B. Thwaites (who set the experimental creation-evolution course at UC San Diego campus), and B. Schadewald (a science writer based in Minnesota) were among them. This small group of people were the major players in anti-creationism activities at the time.
60. Doolittle to his supporters, 31 August 1981, Edwords Papers.
61. A. Heard, "Educators, scientists, clergy form network to get out message," Education Week (9 November 1981): 6.
62. P. J. Hilts, "Creationism back in schools as new science," The Washington Post (23 July 1981): A1.
63. Edwords to R. Doolittle, 24 August 1981, Edwords Papers.
64. P. J. Hilts, "Science Loses One to Creationism," The Washington Post (15 October 1981): A1.
65. Doolittle to his supporters, 31 August 1981, Edwords Papers.
66. P. J. Hilts, "Science Loses One to Creationism" loc. cit., A1.
67. T. Jukes to Doolittle, 9 November 1981, Edwords Papers.
68. Doolittle to T. Jukes, 13 November 1981, Edwords Papers.
69. Wayne Moyer, "Public discussion of creationism," a memorandum dated 14 Oct. 1981, Moyer Papers.
70. Memorandum to liaisons for Committees of Correspondence, March 1981.
71. Their arguments were summarized by the editor of the Creation/Evolution journal; F. Edwords, "Creation- Evolution debates: who's winning them now?" Creation/Evolution 8 (Spring 1982): 30-31.
72. Their arguments were summarized by the editor of the Creation/Evolution journal; F. Edwords, "Creation-Evolution debates: who's winning them now?" Creation/Evolution 8 (Spring 1982): 30-31.
73. All quotes in the following paragraph from F. Edwords, "Creation-Evolution debates: who's winning them now?" Creation/Evolution 8 (Spring 1982): 30-31.
74. All quotes from W. Thwaites and F. Awbrey, "Our last debate: Our very last," Creation/Evolution 33 (1993): 2-4.
75. R. Numbers, Darwinism Comes to America (Harvard University Press, 1998) 49-57