The electrodynamic origins of relativity theory

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 240-311

  Darrigol, Olivier ^a  

^a CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0042785483     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757763     Document Type: Article

References (357)

1. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
2. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
3. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
4. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
5. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
6. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
7. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
8. J. Buchwald, From Maxwell to microphysics. Aspects of electromagnetic theory in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Chicago, 1985); The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (Chicago, 1994); B. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Cornell, 1991); D. Siegel, Innovation in Maxwell's electromagnetic theory: Molecular vortices, displacement current and light (Cambridge, 1991); J. Stachel et al., ECP, 1 and ECP, 2, which have excellent editorial introductions. Other useful sources are W. Kaiser, Theorien der Elektrodynamik im 19. Jahrhundert (Hildesheim, 1981); C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual mastery of nature: Theoretical physics from Ohm to Einstein (2 vols., Chicago, 1986); F. Balibar et al., Albert Einstein, Oeuvres choisies (6 vols., 1985-1993).
9. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
10. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
11. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
12. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
13. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
14. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
15. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
16. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
17. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
18. G. Holton, various essays reprinted in Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1973); T. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics before the theory of relativity," Japanese studies in the history of science, 5 (1966), 1-49; "The ether problem, the mechanistic worldview, and the origins of the theory of relativity," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209; McCormmach, "Einstein, Lorentz, and the electromagnetic view of nature," HSPS, 2 (1970), 41-87; L. Pyenson, "Physics in the shadow of mathematics: The Göttingen electron-theory seminar of 1905," AHES, 21 (1979), 55-89; The young Einstein: The advent of relativity (Bristol, 1985); M. Paty, Einstein philosophe. La physique comme pratique philosophique (Paris, 1993); A. Miller, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905-1911) (Reading, 1981); S. Goldberg, "Henri Poincaré and Einstein's theory of relativity," AJP, 35 (1967), 934-944; Understanding relativity: Origin and impact of a scientific revolution (Boston, 1984).
19. Cf. D. Cassidy, "Understanding the history of special relativity," HSPS, 16 (1986), 187-195.
20. ECP, 2, 253-274, on 258.
21. M.A. Tonnelat, Histoire du principe de relativité (Paris, 1971); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2). For a very clear analysis of these issues, cf. J. Stachel, "History of relativity," in L. Brown, A. Pais, B. Pippard, eds., Twentieth century physics (New York, 1995), 249-356.
22. M.A. Tonnelat, Histoire du principe de relativité (Paris, 1971); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2). For a very clear analysis of these issues, cf. J. Stachel, "History of relativity," in L. Brown, A. Pais, B. Pippard, eds., Twentieth century physics (New York, 1995), 249-356.
23. M.A. Tonnelat, Histoire du principe de relativité (Paris, 1971); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2). For a very clear analysis of these issues, cf. J. Stachel, "History of relativity," in L. Brown, A. Pais, B. Pippard, eds., Twentieth century physics (New York, 1995), 249-356.
24. M. Klein, "Thermodynamics in Einstein's thought," Science, 157 (1967), 509-516; McCormmach (ref. 2); S. Abiko, "On the chemico-thermal origins of Einstein's special relativity," HSPS, 22:1 (1991), 1-24. See also J. Renn, "Einstein as a disciple of Galileo: A comparative study of concept development in physics," Science in context, 6 (1993), 311-341.
25. M. Klein, "Thermodynamics in Einstein's thought," Science, 157 (1967), 509-516; McCormmach (ref. 2); S. Abiko, "On the chemico-thermal origins of Einstein's special relativity," HSPS, 22:1 (1991), 1-24. See also J. Renn, "Einstein as a disciple of Galileo: A comparative study of concept development in physics," Science in context, 6 (1993), 311-341.
26. M. Klein, "Thermodynamics in Einstein's thought," Science, 157 (1967), 509-516; McCormmach (ref. 2); S. Abiko, "On the chemico-thermal origins of Einstein's special relativity," HSPS, 22:1 (1991), 1-24. See also J. Renn, "Einstein as a disciple of Galileo: A comparative study of concept development in physics," Science in context, 6 (1993), 311-341.
27. Cf. Pyenson, "Audacious entreprise: The Einsteins and electrotechnology in late ninenteenth-century Munich," HSPS, 12:2 (1982), 373-392; Miller, "Unipolar induction: A case study of the interaction between science and technology," Annals of science, 3 (1981), 155-189.
28. Cf. Pyenson, "Audacious entreprise: The Einsteins and electrotechnology in late ninenteenth-century Munich," HSPS, 12:2 (1982), 373-392; Miller, "Unipolar induction: A case study of the interaction between science and technology," Annals of science, 3 (1981), 155-189.
29. G. Holton (ref. 2); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2); Goldberg (ref. 2); Paty (ref. 2), 18. Similarly, Renn (ref. 6) has argued that Einstein's early experience in science provided him with powerful cognitive tools.
30. McCormmach, "Editor's foreword," HSPS, 7 (1976), xi-xxxv; Pyenson (ref. 2); "Einstein's education: Mathematics and the laws of nature," Isis, 71 (1980), 399-425.
31. McCormmach, "Editor's foreword," HSPS, 7 (1976), xi-xxxv; Pyenson (ref. 2); "Einstein's education: Mathematics and the laws of nature," Isis, 71 (1980), 399-425.
32. My contributions are: Darrigol, "The electrodynamic revolution in Germany as documented by early German expositions of 'Maxwell's theory,'" AHES, 45 (1993), 189-280; "The electrodynamics of moving bodies from Faraday to Hertz," Centaurus, 36 (1993), 245-360; The electron theories of Larmor and Lorentz: A comparative study," HSPS, 24 (1994), 265-336; "Helmholtz's electrodynamics and the comprehensibility of nature," in L. Krüger, ed., Universalgenie Helmholtz. Rückblick nach 100 Jahren (Berlin, 1994), 216-242; "Henri Poincaré's criticism of fin de siècle electrodynamics," to be published in SHPS;
33. My contributions are: Darrigol, "The electrodynamic revolution in Germany as documented by early German expositions of 'Maxwell's theory,'" AHES, 45 (1993), 189-280; "The electrodynamics of moving bodies from Faraday to Hertz," Centaurus, 36 (1993), 245-360; The electron theories of Larmor and Lorentz: A comparative study," HSPS, 24 (1994), 265-336; "Helmholtz's electrodynamics and the comprehensibility of nature," in L. Krüger, ed., Universalgenie Helmholtz. Rückblick nach 100 Jahren (Berlin, 1994), 216-242; "Henri Poincaré's criticism of fin de siècle electrodynamics," to be published in SHPS;
34. My contributions are: Darrigol, "The electrodynamic revolution in Germany as documented by early German expositions of 'Maxwell's theory,'" AHES, 45 (1993), 189-280; "The electrodynamics of moving bodies from Faraday to Hertz," Centaurus, 36 (1993), 245-360; The electron theories of Larmor and Lorentz: A comparative study," HSPS, 24 (1994), 265-336; "Helmholtz's electrodynamics and the comprehensibility of nature," in L. Krüger, ed., Universalgenie Helmholtz. Rückblick nach 100 Jahren (Berlin, 1994), 216-242; "Henri Poincaré's criticism of fin de siècle electrodynamics," to be published in SHPS;
35. My contributions are: Darrigol, "The electrodynamic revolution in Germany as documented by early German expositions of 'Maxwell's theory,'" AHES, 45 (1993), 189-280; "The electrodynamics of moving bodies from Faraday to Hertz," Centaurus, 36 (1993), 245-360; The electron theories of Larmor and Lorentz: A comparative study," HSPS, 24 (1994), 265-336; "Helmholtz's electrodynamics and the comprehensibility of nature," in L. Krüger, ed., Universalgenie Helmholtz. Rückblick nach 100 Jahren (Berlin, 1994), 216-242; "Henri Poincaré's criticism of fin de siècle electrodynamics," to be published in SHPS;
36. My contributions are: Darrigol, "The electrodynamic revolution in Germany as documented by early German expositions of 'Maxwell's theory,'" AHES, 45 (1993), 189-280; "The electrodynamics of moving bodies from Faraday to Hertz," Centaurus, 36 (1993), 245-360; The electron theories of Larmor and Lorentz: A comparative study," HSPS, 24 (1994), 265-336; "Helmholtz's electrodynamics and the comprehensibility of nature," in L. Krüger, ed., Universalgenie Helmholtz. Rückblick nach 100 Jahren (Berlin, 1994), 216-242; "Henri Poincaré's criticism of fin de siècle electrodynamics," to be published in SHPS;
37. "Emil Cohn's electrodynamics of moving bodies," AJP, 63 (1995), 908-915.
38. Cf. E. Whittaker, A history of the theories of aether and electricity. I: The classical theories (Edinburgh, 1951); Kaiser (ref. 1); Jungnickel and McCormmach, ref. 1.
39. F. Neumann, "Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme," BB (1845, pub. 1847); "Über ein allgemeines Princip der mathematischen Theorie inducirter elektrischer Ströme," BB (1848). Cf. Kaiser (ref. 1); K. Caneva, "From galvanism to electrodynamics: The transformation of German physics and its social context," HSPS, 9:1 (1978), 63-159, on 119-121; K. Olesko, Physics as a calling: Discipline and practice in the Königsberg seminar for physics (Ithaca, 1991), 175-178.
40. F. Neumann, "Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme," BB (1845, pub. 1847); "Über ein allgemeines Princip der mathematischen Theorie inducirter elektrischer Ströme," BB (1848). Cf. Kaiser (ref. 1); K. Caneva, "From galvanism to electrodynamics: The transformation of German physics and its social context," HSPS, 9:1 (1978), 63-159, on 119-121; K. Olesko, Physics as a calling: Discipline and practice in the Königsberg seminar for physics (Ithaca, 1991), 175-178.
41. F. Neumann, "Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme," BB (1845, pub. 1847); "Über ein allgemeines Princip der mathematischen Theorie inducirter elektrischer Ströme," BB (1848). Cf. Kaiser (ref. 1); K. Caneva, "From galvanism to electrodynamics: The transformation of German physics and its social context," HSPS, 9:1 (1978), 63-159, on 119-121; K. Olesko, Physics as a calling: Discipline and practice in the Königsberg seminar for physics (Ithaca, 1991), 175-178.
42. F. Neumann, "Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme," BB (1845, pub. 1847); "Über ein allgemeines Princip der mathematischen Theorie inducirter elektrischer Ströme," BB (1848). Cf. Kaiser (ref. 1); K. Caneva, "From galvanism to electrodynamics: The transformation of German physics and its social context," HSPS, 9:1 (1978), 63-159, on 119-121; K. Olesko, Physics as a calling: Discipline and practice in the Königsberg seminar for physics (Ithaca, 1991), 175-178.
43. The derivation has to be performed as if the current in the investigated conductor were constant and equal to one.
44. W. Weber. Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen. I: Über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung (Leipzig, 1846). Cf. Jungnickel and McCormmach (ref. 1), 1, 139-146; Whittaker (ref. 11); N. Wise, "German concepts of force, energy, and the electromagnetic ether," in G. Cantor and M. Hodge, Conceptions of ether (Cambridge, 1981), 269-307; A. Woodruff, "Action at a distance in nineteenth century electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311.
45. W. Weber. Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen. I: Über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung (Leipzig, 1846). Cf. Jungnickel and McCormmach (ref. 1), 1, 139-146; Whittaker (ref. 11); N. Wise, "German concepts of force, energy, and the electromagnetic ether," in G. Cantor and M. Hodge, Conceptions of ether (Cambridge, 1981), 269-307; A. Woodruff, "Action at a distance in nineteenth century electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311.
46. W. Weber. Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen. I: Über ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung (Leipzig, 1846). Cf. Jungnickel and McCormmach (ref. 1), 1, 139-146; Whittaker (ref. 11); N. Wise, "German concepts of force, energy, and the electromagnetic ether," in G. Cantor and M. Hodge, Conceptions of ether (Cambridge, 1981), 269-307; A. Woodruff, "Action at a distance in nineteenth century electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311.
47. L. Boltzmann, "Über die Unentbehrlichkeit der Atomistik in der Naturwissenschaften" (1897), in Populäre Schriften (Leipzig, 1905), 141-157.
48. H. Helmholtz, Über die Erhaltung der Kraft. Eine physikalische Abhandlung (Berlin, 1847). Cf. F. Bevilacqua, "Helmholtz's Über die Erhaltung der Kraft," in D. Cahan, ed., Hermann von Helmholtz and the foundations of nineteenth century science (Berkeley, 1993), 291-333.
49. H. Helmholtz, Über die Erhaltung der Kraft. Eine physikalische Abhandlung (Berlin, 1847). Cf. F. Bevilacqua, "Helmholtz's Über die Erhaltung der Kraft," in D. Cahan, ed., Hermann von Helmholtz and the foundations of nineteenth century science (Berkeley, 1993), 291-333.
50. Helmholtz (ref. 16), 61-65; H. Poincaré, "L'état actuel et l'avenir de la physique mathématique," Saint-Louis lecture (1904), Bulletin des sciences mathématiques, 28 (1904), 302-324; A. Einstein, "Time, space and gravitation," Times, London (28 Nov 1919), 13, commented in Paty (ref. 2), 446-450. Cf. T. Archibald, "Energy and the mathematization of electrodynamics," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 39 (1989), 276-308;
51. Helmholtz (ref. 16), 61-65; H. Poincaré, "L'état actuel et l'avenir de la physique mathématique," Saint-Louis lecture (1904), Bulletin des sciences mathématiques, 28 (1904), 302-324; A. Einstein, "Time, space and gravitation," Times, London (28 Nov 1919), 13, commented in Paty (ref. 2), 446-450. Cf. T. Archibald, "Energy and the mathematization of electrodynamics," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 39 (1989), 276-308;
52. Helmholtz (ref. 16), 61-65; H. Poincaré, "L'état actuel et l'avenir de la physique mathématique," Saint-Louis lecture (1904), Bulletin des sciences mathématiques, 28 (1904), 302-324; A. Einstein, "Time, space and gravitation," Times, London (28 Nov 1919), 13, commented in Paty (ref. 2), 446-450. Cf. T. Archibald, "Energy and the mathematization of electrodynamics," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 39 (1989), 276-308;
53. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
54. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
55. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
56. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
57. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
58. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
59. Helmholtz, "Über die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. I. Über die Bewegungsgleichungen der Elektricität für ruhende leitende Körper," Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik, 72 (1870), 57-129. Cf. Woodruff, "The contributions of Hermann von Helmholtz to electrodynamics," Isis, 59 (1968), 300-311; G. Buchheim, "Hermann von Helmholtz und die klassische Elektrodynamik," NTM, 8 (1971), 26-36; Kaiser, "Helmholtz's instrumental role in the formation of classical electrodynamics," in Cahan (ref. 16), 374-402; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 7-44, 375-404; "Electrodynamics in context: Object states, laboratory practice, and anti-romanticism," in Cahan (ref. 16), 334-373; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
60. Helmholtz (ref. 18); "Versuche über die im ungeschlossenen Kreise durch Bewegung inducirten elektromotorischen Kräfte," AP, 98 (1875), 87-105. On the question to Hertz, cf. Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 75-78.
61. Helmholtz (ref. 18); "Versuche über die im ungeschlossenen Kreise durch Bewegung inducirten elektromotorischen Kräfte," AP, 98 (1875), 87-105. On the question to Hertz, cf. Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1), 75-78.
62. H. Hertz, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen den Maxwell'schen Elektrodynamischen Grundgleichungen und den Grundgleichungen der gegnerischen Elektrodynamik," AP, 23 (1884), 84-103; Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft (Leipzig, 1892). Cf. S. d'Agostino, "Hertz's researches on electromagnetic waves," HSPS, 6 (1975), 261-323; J. Cazenobe, "Les incertitudes d'une découverte: L'onde de Hertz de 1888 à 1900," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 32 (1982), 236-265; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1);
63. H. Hertz, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen den Maxwell'schen Elektrodynamischen Grundgleichungen und den Grundgleichungen der gegnerischen Elektrodynamik," AP, 23 (1884), 84-103; Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft (Leipzig, 1892). Cf. S. d'Agostino, "Hertz's researches on electromagnetic waves," HSPS, 6 (1975), 261-323; J. Cazenobe, "Les incertitudes d'une découverte: L'onde de Hertz de 1888 à 1900," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 32 (1982), 236-265; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1);
64. H. Hertz, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen den Maxwell'schen Elektrodynamischen Grundgleichungen und den Grundgleichungen der gegnerischen Elektrodynamik," AP, 23 (1884), 84-103; Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft (Leipzig, 1892). Cf. S. d'Agostino, "Hertz's researches on electromagnetic waves," HSPS, 6 (1975), 261-323; J. Cazenobe, "Les incertitudes d'une découverte: L'onde de Hertz de 1888 à 1900," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 32 (1982), 236-265; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1);
65. H. Hertz, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen den Maxwell'schen Elektrodynamischen Grundgleichungen und den Grundgleichungen der gegnerischen Elektrodynamik," AP, 23 (1884), 84-103; Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft (Leipzig, 1892). Cf. S. d'Agostino, "Hertz's researches on electromagnetic waves," HSPS, 6 (1975), 261-323; J. Cazenobe, "Les incertitudes d'une découverte: L'onde de Hertz de 1888 à 1900," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 32 (1982), 236-265; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1);
66. H. Hertz, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen den Maxwell'schen Elektrodynamischen Grundgleichungen und den Grundgleichungen der gegnerischen Elektrodynamik," AP, 23 (1884), 84-103; Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft (Leipzig, 1892). Cf. S. d'Agostino, "Hertz's researches on electromagnetic waves," HSPS, 6 (1975), 261-323; J. Cazenobe, "Les incertitudes d'une découverte: L'onde de Hertz de 1888 à 1900," Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 32 (1982), 236-265; Buchwald, The creation (ref. 1);
67. Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 243-250.
68. On retarded action in Germany, cf. Kaiser (ref. 1).
69. J.C. Maxwell, "On physical lines of force" (1861-1862), in W. Niven, ed., The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell (2 vols., Cambridge, 1890), 451-513; "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1865), ibid., 526-597; A treatise on electricity and magnetism (Oxford, 1873). Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1).
70. J.C. Maxwell, "On physical lines of force" (1861-1862), in W. Niven, ed., The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell (2 vols., Cambridge, 1890), 451-513; "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1865), ibid., 526-597; A treatise on electricity and magnetism (Oxford, 1873). Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1).
71. J.C. Maxwell, "On physical lines of force" (1861-1862), in W. Niven, ed., The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell (2 vols., Cambridge, 1890), 451-513; "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1865), ibid., 526-597; A treatise on electricity and magnetism (Oxford, 1873). Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1).
72. J.C. Maxwell, "On physical lines of force" (1861-1862), in W. Niven, ed., The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell (2 vols., Cambridge, 1890), 451-513; "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1865), ibid., 526-597; A treatise on electricity and magnetism (Oxford, 1873). Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1).
73. Maxwell, Treatise (ref. 22), 2, chaps. 6-9.
74. Ibid., 1, §§ 59-62. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), chap. 3; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 196-202.
75. Ibid., 1, §§ 59-62. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), chap. 3; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 196-202.
76. Ibid., 1, §§ 59-62. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), chap. 3; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 196-202.
77. Maxwell (ref. 24).
78. Maxwell, "A dynamical theory" (ref. 22); Treatise (ref. 22), 2, § 828. Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); O. Knudsen, "The Faraday effect and physical theory, 1845-1873," AHES, 15 (1976), 235-281; Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 111-112.
79. Maxwell, "A dynamical theory" (ref. 22); Treatise (ref. 22), 2, § 828. Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); O. Knudsen, "The Faraday effect and physical theory, 1845-1873," AHES, 15 (1976), 235-281; Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 111-112.
80. Maxwell, "A dynamical theory" (ref. 22); Treatise (ref. 22), 2, § 828. Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); O. Knudsen, "The Faraday effect and physical theory, 1845-1873," AHES, 15 (1976), 235-281; Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 111-112.
81. Maxwell, "A dynamical theory" (ref. 22); Treatise (ref. 22), 2, § 828. Cf. Siegel (ref. 1); O. Knudsen, "The Faraday effect and physical theory, 1845-1873," AHES, 15 (1976), 235-281; Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 111-112.
82. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 1); Hunt (ref. 1).
83. Cf. Buchwald, "Oliver Heaviside, Maxwell's apostle and Maxwellian apostate," Centaurus, 28 (1985), 288-330; Hunt (ref. 1), chap. 5.
84. Cf. P. Heimann, "Maxwell, Hertz, and the nature of electricity," Isis, 62 (1971), 149-157; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 251-257.
85. Cf. P. Heimann, "Maxwell, Hertz, and the nature of electricity," Isis, 62 (1971), 149-157; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 251-257.
86. Cf. Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 200-201.
87. Hertz, "Über die Gleichungen der Elektrodynamik für ruhende Körper," AP, 40 (1890), 577-624.
88. Helmholtz, "Das Prinzip der kleinsten Wirkung in der Elektrodynamik" (1892), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (3 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3 (1895), 476-504. Cf. Klein, "Mechanical explanation at the end of the nineteenth century," Centaurus, 17 (1972), 58-82; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
89. Helmholtz, "Das Prinzip der kleinsten Wirkung in der Elektrodynamik" (1892), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (3 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3 (1895), 476-504. Cf. Klein, "Mechanical explanation at the end of the nineteenth century," Centaurus, 17 (1972), 58-82; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
90. Helmholtz, "Das Prinzip der kleinsten Wirkung in der Elektrodynamik" (1892), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (3 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3 (1895), 476-504. Cf. Klein, "Mechanical explanation at the end of the nineteenth century," Centaurus, 17 (1972), 58-82; Darrigol, "Helmholtz's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
91. L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891, 1893), 2, 23. Cf. Kaiser, introduction to Boltzmann, Gesamtausgabe, (Graz, 1982), 2, 58-82; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 257-264.
92. L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891, 1893), 2, 23. Cf. Kaiser, introduction to Boltzmann, Gesamtausgabe, (Graz, 1982), 2, 58-82; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 257-264.
93. L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität und des Lichtes (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891, 1893), 2, 23. Cf. Kaiser, introduction to Boltzmann, Gesamtausgabe, (Graz, 1982), 2, 58-82; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 257-264.
94. P. Drude, Physik des Aethers auf elektromagnetischer Grundlage (Stuttgart, 1894), vii, vi, 9. Cf. Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 264-267.
95. P. Drude, Physik des Aethers auf elektromagnetischer Grundlage (Stuttgart, 1894), vii, vi, 9. Cf. Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 264-267.
96. A. Föppl, Einführung in die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität (Leipzig, 1894). Cf. J. Bromberg, "Föppl, August," in DSB, 5, 63-64; Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early works," in Holton (ref. 2), 197-218; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 267-271.
97. A. Föppl, Einführung in die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität (Leipzig, 1894). Cf. J. Bromberg, "Föppl, August," in DSB, 5, 63-64; Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early works," in Holton (ref. 2), 197-218; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 267-271.
98. A. Föppl, Einführung in die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität (Leipzig, 1894). Cf. J. Bromberg, "Föppl, August," in DSB, 5, 63-64; Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early works," in Holton (ref. 2), 197-218; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 267-271.
99. A. Föppl, Einführung in die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Elektricität (Leipzig, 1894). Cf. J. Bromberg, "Föppl, August," in DSB, 5, 63-64; Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early works," in Holton (ref. 2), 197-218; Darrigol, "Revolution" (ref. 10), 267-271.
100. E. Cohn, Das elektromagnetische Feld. Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie (Leipzig, 1900). Cohn first developed his conception of the field in "Zur Systematik der Elektricitätslehre," AP, 40 (1890), 625-639. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol (ref. 10), 271-276.
101. E. Cohn, Das elektromagnetische Feld. Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie (Leipzig, 1900). Cohn first developed his conception of the field in "Zur Systematik der Elektricitätslehre," AP, 40 (1890), 625-639. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol (ref. 10), 271-276.
102. E. Cohn, Das elektromagnetische Feld. Vorlesungen über die Maxwell'sche Theorie (Leipzig, 1900). Cohn first developed his conception of the field in "Zur Systematik der Elektricitätslehre," AP, 40 (1890), 625-639. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol (ref. 10), 271-276.
103. Boltzmann, "On statistical mechanics" (1904), in Theoretical physics and philosophical problems (Dordrecht, 1974), 159-172, on 162.
104. Hertz, "On the relations between light and electricity" (1889), in Miscellaneous papers (London, 1896), 318.
105. Mach himself did not go that far. He instead speculated that the ether could solve the paradox of absolute motion. Cf. E. Mach, Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung. Historisch-Kritisch dargestellt (Leipzig, 1901), 241-242.
106. Cf. B. Jones, The life and letters of Faraday (London, 1870); L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (London, 1965); D. Gooding, "In nature's school: Faraday as an experimentalist," in D. Gooding and F. James, eds., Faraday rediscovered (London, 1985), 117-135; G. Cantor, Michael Faraday: Sandemanian and scientist (New York, 1991).
107. Cf. B. Jones, The life and letters of Faraday (London, 1870); L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (London, 1965); D. Gooding, "In nature's school: Faraday as an experimentalist," in D. Gooding and F. James, eds., Faraday rediscovered (London, 1985), 117-135; G. Cantor, Michael Faraday: Sandemanian and scientist (New York, 1991).
108. Cf. B. Jones, The life and letters of Faraday (London, 1870); L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (London, 1965); D. Gooding, "In nature's school: Faraday as an experimentalist," in D. Gooding and F. James, eds., Faraday rediscovered (London, 1985), 117-135; G. Cantor, Michael Faraday: Sandemanian and scientist (New York, 1991).
109. Cf. B. Jones, The life and letters of Faraday (London, 1870); L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday (London, 1965); D. Gooding, "In nature's school: Faraday as an experimentalist," in D. Gooding and F. James, eds., Faraday rediscovered (London, 1985), 117-135; G. Cantor, Michael Faraday: Sandemanian and scientist (New York, 1991).
110. M. Faraday, Experimental researches in electricity (3 vols., London, 1839-1855), 3, §3075; Ibid. (London, 1839), 1, 223, 65. Cf. Miller (ref. 7); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 298-299.
111. M. Faraday, Experimental researches in electricity (3 vols., London, 1839-1855), 3, §3075; Ibid. (London, 1839), 1, 223, 65. Cf. Miller (ref. 7); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 298-299.
112. M. Faraday, Experimental researches in electricity (3 vols., London, 1839-1855), 3, §3075; Ibid. (London, 1839), 1, 223, 65. Cf. Miller (ref. 7); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 298-299.
113. S. Tolver Preston, "On some electromagnetic experiments of Faraday and Plücker," PM, 19 (1885), 131-140, on 134. Cf. Miller (ref. 7); Darrigol (ref. 10), 299-300.
114. Neumann, "Princip" (ref. 12), 22. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 255-259.
115. Neumann, "Princip" (ref. 12), 22. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 255-259.
116. Weber (ref. 14), 143. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 259-262.
117. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 263-275.
118. Maxwell, "On physical lines of force" (ref. 23).
119. Maxwell, Treatise (ref. 22), 2, §600-601; J.J. Thomson, "On the electric and magnetic effects produced by the motion of electrified bodies," PM, 11 (1881), 229-249. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 302-309.
120. Maxwell, Treatise (ref. 22), 2, §600-601; J.J. Thomson, "On the electric and magnetic effects produced by the motion of electrified bodies," PM, 11 (1881), 229-249. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 302-309.
121. Maxwell, Treatise (ref. 22), 2, §600-601; J.J. Thomson, "On the electric and magnetic effects produced by the motion of electrified bodies," PM, 11 (1881), 229-249. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 302-309.
122. O. Heaviside, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation," The electrician (1885-1887), also in Heaviside, Electrical papers (2 vols., New York, 1892), 1, 429-560, 2, 39-155. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Hunt (ref. 1); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 309-312.
123. O. Heaviside, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation," The electrician (1885-1887), also in Heaviside, Electrical papers (2 vols., New York, 1892), 1, 429-560, 2, 39-155. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Hunt (ref. 1); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 309-312.
124. O. Heaviside, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation," The electrician (1885-1887), also in Heaviside, Electrical papers (2 vols., New York, 1892), 1, 429-560, 2, 39-155. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Hunt (ref. 1); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 309-312.
125. O. Heaviside, "Electromagnetic induction and its propagation," The electrician (1885-1887), also in Heaviside, Electrical papers (2 vols., New York, 1892), 1, 429-560, 2, 39-155. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Hunt (ref. 1); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 309-312.
126. Föppl (ref. 35), 321-330. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 329-332.
127. Hertz, "Über die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 41 (1890), 369-399. Cf. O. Knudsen, "Nineteenth century views on induction in moving conductors," Centaurus, 24 (1980), 346-360.
128. Hertz, "Über die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 41 (1890), 369-399. Cf. O. Knudsen, "Nineteenth century views on induction in moving conductors," Centaurus, 24 (1980), 346-360.
129. Heaviside, "On the forces, stresses, and fluxes of energy in the electromagnetic field," PRS (1891, 1892), also in Electrical papers (ref. 48), 2, 521-574. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 324-327.
130. Heaviside, "On the forces, stresses, and fluxes of energy in the electromagnetic field," PRS (1891, 1892), also in Electrical papers (ref. 48), 2, 521-574. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 324-327.
131. Heaviside, "On the forces, stresses, and fluxes of energy in the electromagnetic field," PRS (1891, 1892), also in Electrical papers (ref. 48), 2, 521-574. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 28); Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 324-327.
132. Hertz (ret. 50), Gesammelte Werke (3 vols., Leipzig, 1894-1894), 2, 261-262.
133. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 333.
134. O. Heaviside, Electromagnetic theory (3 vols., New York, 1894-1912), 1, 43-44. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 335-336.
135. O. Heaviside, Electromagnetic theory (3 vols., New York, 1894-1912), 1, 43-44. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 335-336.
136. H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèse relatives à l'éther lumineux, et sur une expérience qui paraît démontrer que le mouvement des corps change la vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se propage dans leur intérieur," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 33 (1851), 349-355; A. Michelson and E. Morley, "Influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light," American journal of science, 31 (1886), 377-386; Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 285; Heaviside to Hertz, 14 Aug 1889, in J. O'Hara and W. Pricha, Hertz and the Maxwellians (London, 1987); Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, ibid.
137. H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèse relatives à l'éther lumineux, et sur une expérience qui paraît démontrer que le mouvement des corps change la vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se propage dans leur intérieur," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 33 (1851), 349-355; A. Michelson and E. Morley, "Influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light," American journal of science, 31 (1886), 377-386; Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 285; Heaviside to Hertz, 14 Aug 1889, in J. O'Hara and W. Pricha, Hertz and the Maxwellians (London, 1987); Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, ibid.
138. H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèse relatives à l'éther lumineux, et sur une expérience qui paraît démontrer que le mouvement des corps change la vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se propage dans leur intérieur," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 33 (1851), 349-355; A. Michelson and E. Morley, "Influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light," American journal of science, 31 (1886), 377-386; Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 285; Heaviside to Hertz, 14 Aug 1889, in J. O'Hara and W. Pricha, Hertz and the Maxwellians (London, 1987); Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, ibid.
139. H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèse relatives à l'éther lumineux, et sur une expérience qui paraît démontrer que le mouvement des corps change la vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se propage dans leur intérieur," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 33 (1851), 349-355; A. Michelson and E. Morley, "Influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light," American journal of science, 31 (1886), 377-386; Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 285; Heaviside to Hertz, 14 Aug 1889, in J. O'Hara and W. Pricha, Hertz and the Maxwellians (London, 1987); Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, ibid.
140. H. Fizeau, "Sur les hypothèse relatives à l'éther lumineux, et sur une expérience qui paraît démontrer que le mouvement des corps change la vitesse avec laquelle la lumière se propage dans leur intérieur," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 33 (1851), 349-355; A. Michelson and E. Morley, "Influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light," American journal of science, 31 (1886), 377-386; Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 285; Heaviside to Hertz, 14 Aug 1889, in J. O'Hara and W. Pricha, Hertz and the Maxwellians (London, 1987); Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, ibid.
141. Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 284; Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, in O'Hara (ref. 55); Heaviside to Hertz, 13 Sep 1889, ibid. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 323, 327.
142. Hertz, Gesammelte Werke (ref. 52), 2, 284; Hertz to Heaviside, 3 Sep 1889, in O'Hara (ref. 55); Heaviside to Hertz, 13 Sep 1889, ibid. Cf. Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 323, 327.
143. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
144. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
145. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
146. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
147. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
148. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
149. Cohn (ref. 36), 536; H. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 345-420; Drude (ref. 34), 219; Föppl (ref. 35), 307-330; Helmholtz, "Folgerungen aus Maxwell's Theorie über die Bewegung des reinen Aethers" (1893), in Helmholtz, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1895), 3, 526-535; W. Wien, "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen," AP, 65 (1898), Beilage: i-xvii; criticizing Mie: "Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," PZ, 2 (1901) 148-150; G. Mie, " Über mögliche Aetherbewegungen," AP, 68 (1899), 129-134; reply to Wien: PZ, 2 (1901), 181-182; "Über die Bewegungen eines als flüssig angenommenen Aether," PZ, 2 (1901), 318-325.
150. W. von Sellmeier, "Über die durch Aetherverschiebungen erregten Körpertheilchen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Ersten, besonders zur Erklärung der Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien," AP, 145 (1872), 520-549; 147 (1872), 386-408, 525-544; Helmholtz, "Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion," AP, 154 (1875), 582-596; "On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity," Journal of the chemical society, 39 (1881), 277-304. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 233-237.
151. W. von Sellmeier, "Über die durch Aetherverschiebungen erregten Körpertheilchen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Ersten, besonders zur Erklärung der Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien," AP, 145 (1872), 520-549; 147 (1872), 386-408, 525-544; Helmholtz, "Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion," AP, 154 (1875), 582-596; "On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity," Journal of the chemical society, 39 (1881), 277-304. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 233-237.
152. W. von Sellmeier, "Über die durch Aetherverschiebungen erregten Körpertheilchen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Ersten, besonders zur Erklärung der Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien," AP, 145 (1872), 520-549; 147 (1872), 386-408, 525-544; Helmholtz, "Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion," AP, 154 (1875), 582-596; "On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity," Journal of the chemical society, 39 (1881), 277-304. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 233-237.
153. W. von Sellmeier, "Über die durch Aetherverschiebungen erregten Körpertheilchen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Ersten, besonders zur Erklärung der Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien," AP, 145 (1872), 520-549; 147 (1872), 386-408, 525-544; Helmholtz, "Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion," AP, 154 (1875), 582-596; "On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity," Journal of the chemical society, 39 (1881), 277-304. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 233-237.
154. W. von Sellmeier, "Über die durch Aetherverschiebungen erregten Körpertheilchen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Ersten, besonders zur Erklärung der Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien," AP, 145 (1872), 520-549; 147 (1872), 386-408, 525-544; Helmholtz, "Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion," AP, 154 (1875), 582-596; "On the modern development of Faraday's conception of electricity," Journal of the chemical society, 39 (1881), 277-304. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), 233-237.
155. Lorentz, "Over de theorie der terugkaatsing en breking van het licht," Academisch Proefschrift (Leiden, 1875), translated as "Sur la théorie de la réflexion et de la réfraction de la lumière," in LCP1, 193-383. Cf. Hirosige, "Origins of Lorentz' theory of electrons and the concept of the electromagnetic field," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209.
156. Lorentz, "Over de theorie der terugkaatsing en breking van het licht," Academisch Proefschrift (Leiden, 1875), translated as "Sur la théorie de la réflexion et de la réfraction de la lumière," in LCP1, 193-383. Cf. Hirosige, "Origins of Lorentz' theory of electrons and the concept of the electromagnetic field," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209.
157. Lorentz, "Over de theorie der terugkaatsing en breking van het licht," Academisch Proefschrift (Leiden, 1875), translated as "Sur la théorie de la réflexion et de la réfraction de la lumière," in LCP1, 193-383. Cf. Hirosige, "Origins of Lorentz' theory of electrons and the concept of the electromagnetic field," HSPS, 1 (1969), 151-209.
158. Lorentz, "La théorie électromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants" (1892), LCP4, 219-223. Cf. Hirosige (ref. 59); Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
159. Lorentz, "La théorie électromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants" (1892), LCP4, 219-223. Cf. Hirosige (ref. 59); Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
160. Lorentz, "La théorie électromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants" (1892), LCP4, 219-223. Cf. Hirosige (ref. 59); Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
161. Lorentz, "Over het verband tusschen de voortplantings snelheid en de dichtheid en samestelling der middenstofen" (1878), translated as "Concerning the relation between the velocity of propagation of light and the density and composition of media," LCP2, 3-119; Lorentz (ret. 60); "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux" (1886), LCP4, 153-214.
162. Lorentz, "Over het verband tusschen de voortplantings snelheid en de dichtheid en samestelling der middenstofen" (1878), translated as "Concerning the relation between the velocity of propagation of light and the density and composition of media," LCP2, 3-119; Lorentz (ret. 60); "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux" (1886), LCP4, 153-214.
163. Lorentz, "Over het verband tusschen de voortplantings snelheid en de dichtheid en samestelling der middenstofen" (1878), translated as "Concerning the relation between the velocity of propagation of light and the density and composition of media," LCP2, 3-119; Lorentz (ret. 60); "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux" (1886), LCP4, 153-214.
164. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
165. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
166. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
167. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
168. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
169. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
170. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
171. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
172. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
173. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
174. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
175. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
176. A. Fresnel, "Sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique" (1818), in Oeuvre complètes (1868), 2, 627-636; W. Veitmann, "Fresnel's Hypothese zur Erklärung der Aberrationserscheinungen," Astronomische Nachrichten, 75 (1870), 145-160; "Über die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in bewegten Medien," ibid., 76 (1870), 129-144; AP, 150 (1873), 497-535; E. Mascart, "Sur les modifications qu'éprouve la lumière par suite du mouvement de la source et du mouvement de l'observateur," Annales de l'Ecole normale, 1 (1872), 157-214; 3 (1874), 363-420. On the history of the optics of moving bodies, cf. E. Ketteler, Astronomische Undulationstheorie, oder die Lehre von der Aberration des Lichtes (Bonn, 1873); J. Larmor, Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900), chap. 2; Whittaker (ref. 11); Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 5); K. Schaffner, Nineteenth-century aether theories (New York, 1972); Buchwald, "The Michelson experiment in the light of electromagnetic theory before 1900," in S. Goldberg and R. Stuewer, eds., The Michelson era in American science, 1870-1930 (New York, 1990), 55-70; A. Mayrargue, "L'aberration des étoiles et l'éther de Fresnel," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1991); M. Pietrocola Pinto de Oliveira, "Elie Mascart et l'optique des corps en mouvement," Thèse de doctorat (Paris 7, 1992).
177. Lorentz, "On the reflection of light by moving bodies," (1892), LCP4, 215-218; Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern (Leiden, 1895), also in LCP5, 1-139, on 85.
178. Lorentz, "On the reflection of light by moving bodies," (1892), LCP4, 215-218; Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern (Leiden, 1895), also in LCP5, 1-139, on 85.
179. Lorentz, "The relative motion of the earth and the ether (1892), LCP4, 219-223.
180. Michelson, "The relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 22 (1881), 120-129; Lorentz, "De l'influence" (ref. 61); Michelson and Morley, "On the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 34 (1887), 333-345. Cf. Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); L. Swenson, The ethereal aether (Austin, 1972); Buchwald (ref. 62).
181. Michelson, "The relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 22 (1881), 120-129; Lorentz, "De l'influence" (ref. 61); Michelson and Morley, "On the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 34 (1887), 333-345. Cf. Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); L. Swenson, The ethereal aether (Austin, 1972); Buchwald (ref. 62).
182. Michelson, "The relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 22 (1881), 120-129; Lorentz, "De l'influence" (ref. 61); Michelson and Morley, "On the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 34 (1887), 333-345. Cf. Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); L. Swenson, The ethereal aether (Austin, 1972); Buchwald (ref. 62).
183. Michelson, "The relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 22 (1881), 120-129; Lorentz, "De l'influence" (ref. 61); Michelson and Morley, "On the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 34 (1887), 333-345. Cf. Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); L. Swenson, The ethereal aether (Austin, 1972); Buchwald (ref. 62).
184. Michelson, "The relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 22 (1881), 120-129; Lorentz, "De l'influence" (ref. 61); Michelson and Morley, "On the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous ether," American journal of science, 34 (1887), 333-345. Cf. Hirosige, "The ether problem" (ref. 2); L. Swenson, The ethereal aether (Austin, 1972); Buchwald (ref. 62).
185. Cf. N. Nersessian, "Why was not Lorentz Einstein? An examination of the scientific method of H.A. Lorentz," Centaurus, 29 (1986), 205-242.
186. Lorentz (ref. 63). On the rise of ionic theories, cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1).
187. Helmholtz, "Elektromagnetische Theorie der Farbenzerstreuung," AP, 48 (1893), 389-405;
188. R. Reiff, "Zur dispersionstheorie," AP, 55 (1895), 82-94;
189. "Neuere Deutung der magnetischen Drehung der Polarisationsebene," AP, 57 (1896), 281-289;
190. C. Wind, "On the theory of magneto-optic phenomena," Physical review, 6 (1898), 43-51, 98-113;
191. Lorentz, "Théorie des phénomènes magnéto-optiques récemment découverts," Rapports présentés au congrès international de physique de 1900 (4 vols., Paris, 1900-1901), 3, 1-33.
192. Cf. Buchwald, From Maxwell (ref. 1), part 5.
193. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
194. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
195. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
196. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
197. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
198. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
199. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
200. P. Zeeman, "On the influence of magnetism on the nature of light emitted by a substance," PM, 43 (1897), 226-239; E. Wiechert, "Über das Wesen der Elektricität" (7 Jan 1897), Physikalische-Ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften, 38 (1897), 3-16; J.J. Thomson, "Cathode rays," PM, 44 (1897), 293-316. On the electron discovery, cf. J.L. Heilbron, "A history of the problem of atomic structure from the discovery of the electron to the beginning of quantum mechanics" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1964); I. Falconer, "Corpuscles, electrons, and cathode rays: J,J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron," BJHS. 20 (1987), 241-276; S. Feffer, "Arthur Schuster, J.J. Thomson, and the discovery of the electron," HSPS, 20:1 (1981), 1-61. On Wiechert, cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2).
201. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 1), part III; Hunt (ref. 1), chapt. 9; A. Warwick, "On the role of the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction hypothesis in the development of Joseph Larmor's electronic theory of matter," AHES, 43 (1991), 29-91; Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
202. Cf. Buchwald (ref. 1), part III; Hunt (ref. 1), chapt. 9; A. Warwick, "On the role of the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction hypothesis in the development of Joseph Larmor's electronic theory of matter," AHES, 43 (1991), 29-91; Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
203. Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Aertze, Verhandlungen (1898), 49-65; Wien (ref. 57); Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik (Leipzig, 1900); Recueil des travaux offerts par les auteurs à H.A. Lorentz à l'occasion du 25ème anniversaire de son doctoral le 11 décembre 1900 (The Hague, 1900).
204. Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Aertze, Verhandlungen (1898), 49-65; Wien (ref. 57); Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik (Leipzig, 1900); Recueil des travaux offerts par les auteurs à H.A. Lorentz à l'occasion du 25ème anniversaire de son doctoral le 11 décembre 1900 (The Hague, 1900).
205. Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Aertze, Verhandlungen (1898), 49-65; Wien (ref. 57); Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik (Leipzig, 1900); Recueil des travaux offerts par les auteurs à H.A. Lorentz à l'occasion du 25ème anniversaire de son doctoral le 11 décembre 1900 (The Hague, 1900).
206. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
207. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
208. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
209. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
210. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
211. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
212. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
213. E. Riecke, "Zur Theorie des Galvanismus und der Wärme," AP, 66 (1898), 353-389, 545-581; Drude, "Zur lonentheorie der Metalle," PZ, 1 (1900), 161-165; "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle," AP, 1 (1900), 566-613; AP, 3 (1900), 369-402; Also J.J. Thomson, "Indications relatives à la constitution de la matière fournie par les recherches récentes sur le passage de l'électricité à travers les gaz," in Rapports (1900) (ref. 68), 138-151. Cf. R. Seeliger, "Elektronentheorie der Metalle," in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1922), 777-872; W. Kaiser, "Early theories of the electron gas," HSPS, 17:2 (1987), 270-297; M. Eckert et al., "The roots of solid-state physics before quantum mechanics," in L. Hoddeson et al., Out of the crystal maze (New York, 1992), 3-87, esp. 27-30.
214. Cf. Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
215. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. 1. Les théories de Maxwell et la théorie électromagnétique de la lumière (Paris, 1890), introduction.
216. Poincaré, Saint-Louis lecture (ref. 17).
217. Cf. Darrigol, "Revolution" and "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
218. Poincaré, Théorie mathématique de la lumière (Paris, 1889), introduction; Poincaré (ref. 57), 345-420.
219. Poincaré, "A propos de la théorie de M. Larmor" (1895), PO 9, 369-426, on 395-413; La science et l'hypothèse (Paris, 1902), 181.
220. Poincaré, "A propos de la théorie de M. Larmor" (1895), PO 9, 369-426, on 395-413; La science et l'hypothèse (Paris, 1902), 181.
221. Poincaré, "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de la réaction" (1900), in Recueil (ref. 71), 252-278; Poincaré, "A propos" (ref. 78), 412.
222. Poincaré, "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de la réaction" (1900), in Recueil (ref. 71), 252-278; Poincaré, "A propos" (ref. 78), 412.
223. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 536; Poincaré (ref. 79). Cf. C. Scribner, "Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity," AJP, 32 (1964), 672-678; C. Cuvaj, A history of relativity. The role of Henri Poincaré and Paul Langevin (Ph.D. dissertation, Yeshiva University, 1970).
224. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 536; Poincaré (ref. 79). Cf. C. Scribner, "Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity," AJP, 32 (1964), 672-678; C. Cuvaj, A history of relativity. The role of Henri Poincaré and Paul Langevin (Ph.D. dissertation, Yeshiva University, 1970).
225. Poincaré, Electricité et optique. La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques (Paris, 1901), 536; Poincaré (ref. 79). Cf. C. Scribner, "Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity," AJP, 32 (1964), 672-678; C. Cuvaj, A history of relativity. The role of Henri Poincaré and Paul Langevin (Ph.D. dissertation, Yeshiva University, 1970).
226. Poincaré (ref. 79).
227. This doing Poincaré maintained the conservation of the mass of the sources.
228. Poincaré (ref. 79), 278; A. Liénard had already noted the first-order correction to electrodynamic forces. Later, in 1905, Poincaré no longer believed that this correction contradicted the relativity principle, because, as he argued at the level of individual electrons, in the law of motion a mass correction could compensate for the force correction. In one of his derivations of the mass-energy relation, Einstein used a similar consideration at the macroscopic level. Cf. Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
229. Poincaré (ref. 79), 272; "La mesure du temps," Revue de métaphysique et de morale, 6 (1898), 371-384, also in Poincaré, The foundations of science (New York, 1922), 232-233.
230. Poincaré (ref. 79), 272; "La mesure du temps," Revue de métaphysique et de morale, 6 (1898), 371-384, also in Poincaré, The foundations of science (New York, 1922), 232-233.
231. J.J. Thomson (ref. 48); J. Larmor, "A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part II," Royal Society of London, Philosophical transactions, 186 (1895), 695-742; E. Wiechert, "Die Bedeutung des Weltäthers," Physikalische-ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften (1894), [4]-[11]; W. Wien, "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik," in Recueil (ref. 71), 96-107; W. Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und die elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare Masse des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1901), 143-155. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2), 45-54; J. Cushing, "Electromagnetic mass, relativity, and the Kaufmann experiments," AJP, 49 (1981), 1133-1149.
232. J.J. Thomson (ref. 48); J. Larmor, "A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part II," Royal Society of London, Philosophical transactions, 186 (1895), 695-742; E. Wiechert, "Die Bedeutung des Weltäthers," Physikalische-ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften (1894), [4]-[11]; W. Wien, "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik," in Recueil (ref. 71), 96-107; W. Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und die elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare Masse des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1901), 143-155. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2), 45-54; J. Cushing, "Electromagnetic mass, relativity, and the Kaufmann experiments," AJP, 49 (1981), 1133-1149.
233. J.J. Thomson (ref. 48); J. Larmor, "A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part II," Royal Society of London, Philosophical transactions, 186 (1895), 695-742; E. Wiechert, "Die Bedeutung des Weltäthers," Physikalische-ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften (1894), [4]-[11]; W. Wien, "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik," in Recueil (ref. 71), 96-107; W. Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und die elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare Masse des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1901), 143-155. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2), 45-54; J. Cushing, "Electromagnetic mass, relativity, and the Kaufmann experiments," AJP, 49 (1981), 1133-1149.
234. J.J. Thomson (ref. 48); J. Larmor, "A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part II," Royal Society of London, Philosophical transactions, 186 (1895), 695-742; E. Wiechert, "Die Bedeutung des Weltäthers," Physikalische-ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften (1894), [4]-[11]; W. Wien, "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik," in Recueil (ref. 71), 96-107; W. Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und die elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare Masse des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1901), 143-155. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2), 45-54; J. Cushing, "Electromagnetic mass, relativity, and the Kaufmann experiments," AJP, 49 (1981), 1133-1149.
235. J.J. Thomson (ref. 48); J. Larmor, "A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part II," Royal Society of London, Philosophical transactions, 186 (1895), 695-742; E. Wiechert, "Die Bedeutung des Weltäthers," Physikalische-ökonomische Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, Schriften (1894), [4]-[11]; W. Wien, "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik," in Recueil (ref. 71), 96-107; W. Kaufmann, "Die magnetische und die elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Becquerelstrahlen und die scheinbare Masse des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1901), 143-155. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2), 45-54; J. Cushing, "Electromagnetic mass, relativity, and the Kaufmann experiments," AJP, 49 (1981), 1133-1149.
236. M. Abraham, "Dynamik des Elektrons," Göttinger Nachrichten (1902), 20-41. Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 55-61.
237. Cf. Pyenson (ref. 2).
238. Cf. Hirosige (ref. 2); McCormmach (ref. 2); Miller (ref. 2).
239. Lorentz, "Electromagnetische verschijnselen in een stelsel dat zieh met willekeurige snelheid, kleiner dan die van het licht, beweegt," Koninklijke akademie van wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Wisen Natuurkundige Afdeeling, Verslagen, 12 (1904), 986-1009. Cf. Miller (ref. 2); Nersessian (ref. 66); Paty (ref. 2); Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
240. Lorentz, "Electromagnetische verschijnselen in een stelsel dat zieh met willekeurige snelheid, kleiner dan die van het licht, beweegt," Koninklijke akademie van wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Wisen Natuurkundige Afdeeling, Verslagen, 12 (1904), 986-1009. Cf. Miller (ref. 2); Nersessian (ref. 66); Paty (ref. 2); Darrigol, "The electron theories" (ref. 10).
241. Lorentz, "Théorie simplifiée des phénomènes électriques et optiques dans les corps en mouvement" (1899), LCP5, 139-155. Larmor had already given the exact expression of the Lorentz transformation for coordinates and fields in 1897, but had not realized at that time that this transformation leaves the Maxwell equations (without sources) invariant at any order.
242. Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 75-79.
243. Poincaré, "Sur la dynamique de l'électron," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 140 (1905), 1504-1508; "Sur la dynamique de l'électron" (1906), PO 9, 494-550. Cf. Miller (ref. 2); Paty (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
244. Poincaré, "Sur la dynamique de l'électron," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 140 (1905), 1504-1508; "Sur la dynamique de l'électron" (1906), PO 9, 494-550. Cf. Miller (ref. 2); Paty (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
245. Poincaré, "Sur la dynamique de l'électron," Académie des sciences, Comptes rendus, 140 (1905), 1504-1508; "Sur la dynamique de l'électron" (1906), PO 9, 494-550. Cf. Miller (ref. 2); Paty (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
246. PO 9, 495; Poincaré (ref. 81); ref. 17; "Les limites de la loi de Newton" (Sorbonne lectures of 1906-1907, ed. by H. Vergne), Bulletin astronomique publié par l'observatoire de Paris, 17 (1953), 121-365, chap. 11: "Dynamique de l'électron."
247. PO 9, 495; Poincaré (ref. 81); ref. 17; "Les limites de la loi de Newton" (Sorbonne lectures of 1906-1907, ed. by H. Vergne), Bulletin astronomique publié par l'observatoire de Paris, 17 (1953), 121-365, chap. 11: "Dynamique de l'électron."
248. Abraham, Theorie der Elektrizität: Elektromagnetische Theorie der Strahlung (Leipzig, 1905), 389; Lorentz (ref. 91), 1009; Lorentz to Poincaré (reaction to Kaufmann) (8 Mar 1906), in Miller, "On some other approaches to electrodynamics in 1905," in H. Woolf, ed., Some strangeness in the proportion. A centennial symposium to celebrate the achievements of Albert Einstein (Reading, 1980), 66-91, on 83-84.
249. Abraham, Theorie der Elektrizität: Elektromagnetische Theorie der Strahlung (Leipzig, 1905), 389; Lorentz (ref. 91), 1009; Lorentz to Poincaré (reaction to Kaufmann) (8 Mar 1906), in Miller, "On some other approaches to electrodynamics in 1905," in H. Woolf, ed., Some strangeness in the proportion. A centennial symposium to celebrate the achievements of Albert Einstein (Reading, 1980), 66-91, on 83-84.
250. PO 9, 497, 572.
251. Wien, Über Elektronen (Leipzig, 1905), 24.
252. Cohn, "Über die Gleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," in Recueil (ref. 71), 516-523; "Über die Gleichungen des elektromagnetischen Feldes für bewegte Körper," AP, 7 (1902), 29-56. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
253. Cohn, "Über die Gleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," in Recueil (ref. 71), 516-523; "Über die Gleichungen des elektromagnetischen Feldes für bewegte Körper," AP, 7 (1902), 29-56. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
254. Cohn, "Über die Gleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," in Recueil (ref. 71), 516-523; "Über die Gleichungen des elektromagnetischen Feldes für bewegte Körper," AP, 7 (1902), 29-56. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
255. Cohn, "Über die Gleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," in Recueil (ref. 71), 516-523; "Über die Gleichungen des elektromagnetischen Feldes für bewegte Körper," AP, 7 (1902), 29-56. Cf. Hirosige, "Electrodynamics" (ref. 2); Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10).
256. Cohn, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Systeme," Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, mathematische-physikalische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte (1904), 1294-1303, 1404-1416, on 1299-1300.
257. Ibid., 1408. In the expressions of the local time, X denotes the Galilean abscissa with respect to the earth, that is, X - ut, if x denotes the abscissa with respect to the ether.
258. Wien, "Über einen Versuch zur Entscheidung der Frage, ob sich der Lichtäther mit der Erde bewegt oder nicht," PZ, 5 (1904), 585-586; Cohn (ref. 98), 1408-1409.
259. Lorentz, "Weiterbildung der Maxwellschen Theorie. Elektronentheorie," in Enzyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluss ihrer Anwendungen (6 vols., Leipzig, 1898-1935), 5, 145-280, 274-275; Cohn (ref. 98), 1302; Abraham (ref. 94), 389-391.
260. A. Bucherer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Intensität des Lichtes," AP, 11 (1903), 270-283; Bucherer to Lorentz (15 Feb. 6 Aug, 8 Dec, 1902), AHQP; P. Nordmeyer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Verteilung der Intensität der Licht- und Wärmestrahlung," AP, 11 (1903), 421-441. Bucherer had an English mother, had been partly educated in the U.S., and was a friend of G.F.C. Searle, the British expert in electric convection: cf. Goldberg, "Bucherer, Alfred Heinrich," DSB, 2, 559-560.
261. A. Bucherer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Intensität des Lichtes," AP, 11 (1903), 270-283; Bucherer to Lorentz (15 Feb. 6 Aug, 8 Dec, 1902), AHQP; P. Nordmeyer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Verteilung der Intensität der Licht- und Wärmestrahlung," AP, 11 (1903), 421-441. Bucherer had an English mother, had been partly educated in the U.S., and was a friend of G.F.C. Searle, the British expert in electric convection: cf. Goldberg, "Bucherer, Alfred Heinrich," DSB, 2, 559-560.
262. A. Bucherer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Intensität des Lichtes," AP, 11 (1903), 270-283; Bucherer to Lorentz (15 Feb. 6 Aug, 8 Dec, 1902), AHQP; P. Nordmeyer, "Über den Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Verteilung der Intensität der Licht- und Wärmestrahlung," AP, 11 (1903), 421-441. Bucherer had an English mother, had been partly educated in the U.S., and was a friend of G.F.C. Searle, the British expert in electric convection: cf. Goldberg, "Bucherer, Alfred Heinrich," DSB, 2, 559-560.
263. Bucherer (ref. 102), 282; Mathematische Einführung in die Elektronentheorie (Leipzig, 1904), 131.
264. Bucherer (ref. 102), 282-283; Bucherer (ref. 103), 131.
265. Bucherer (ref. 103), 57-59.
266. Bucherer, "Das deformierte Elektron und die Theorie des Elektromagnetismus," PZ, 6 (1905), 833-834; Bucherer, discussion of M. Planck, "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen," PZ, 7 (1906), 753-759, on 760.
267. Bucherer, "Das deformierte Elektron und die Theorie des Elektromagnetismus," PZ, 6 (1905), 833-834; Bucherer, discussion of M. Planck, "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen," PZ, 7 (1906), 753-759, on 760.
268. Bucherer, "Ein Versuch, den Elektromagnetismus auf Grund der Relativbewegung darzustellen," PZ, 7 (1906), 553-557; and the clearer account: "On a new principle of relativity in electromagnetism," PM, 13 (1907), 413-120, on 414.
269. Bucherer, "Ein Versuch, den Elektromagnetismus auf Grund der Relativbewegung darzustellen," PZ, 7 (1906), 553-557; and the clearer account: "On a new principle of relativity in electromagnetism," PM, 13 (1907), 413-120, on 414.
270. Perhaps the argument was reminiscent of the one in Einstein's relativity paper.
271. Bucherer, "On the principle of relativity and on the electromagnetic mass of the electron. A reply to Mr. Cunningham," PM, 15 (1908), 316-318, on 316. Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 267.
272. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
273. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
274. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
275. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
276. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
277. Planck to Wien, 29 Nov 1906, AHQP, discussed in Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2), 201; E. Cunningham, "Electromagnetic mass of a moving electron," PM, 14 (1907), 538-547; "Principle of relativity and electromagnetic mass of electrons," PM, 16 (1908), 423-428; W. Ritz, "Recherches critiques sur l'électrodynamique générale," Annales de chimie et de physique, 13 (1908), 145-275, on 204; Bucherer, "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie," PZ, 9 (1908), 755-762. On the latter experiment, cf. Miller (ref. 2), 345-349. The result was later questioned, and almost ten years elapsed before a conclusive verification of the Lorentz-Einstein mass formula: cf. Stachel et al., ECP, 2, on 272.
278. Einstein, "Über die Untersuchung des Aetherzustandes im magnetischen Felde," in ECP, 1, 6-9. On the Einstein business, cf. Pyenson (ref. 7).
279. Einstein, "Autobiographisches," in P.A. Schupp, ed., Albert Einstein: Philosopher-scientist (Evanston, 1949), 1-94, on 52-53.
280. Cf. Einstein to Marić, Apr 1898, ECP, 1, 213.
281. Einstein to Marić, Aug 1899, ECP, 1, 225-227.
282. Hertz, Untersuchungen (ref. 20), 211-212; Ibid., 285. Einstein's criticism is here akin to Boltzmann's (ref. 33), 2, 13-14.
283. Hertz, Untersuchungen (ref. 20), 211-212; Ibid., 285. Einstein's criticism is here akin to Boltzmann's (ref. 33), 2, 13-14.
284. Helmholtz (ref. 58); (ref. 68). On Einstein having read Helmholtz. cf. Einstein to Marić (Aug 1899) (ref. 114), 226.
285. Cf. Einstein's lecture notes, in ECP, 1, 148-210.
286. Einstein to Marie (ref. 114), 227; Einstein's reminiscence about an experiment of the Nordmeyer type is in the Kyoto lecture (14 Dec 1922), "How I created the theory of relativity?" Physics today, 35:8 (1982), 45-47.
287. Einstein to Marić, 10 Sep 1899, in ECP, 1, 229-230.
288. Einstein to Marić, 28? Sep 1899, ECP, 1, 233-235;
289. Einstein to Grossmann, 6? Sep 1901, ECP, 1, 315-316: "For detecting the relative motion of matter with respect to the luminiferous ether. I have thought of a much simpler method that rests on ordinary interference experiments."
290. Einstein read Mach, presumably the Mechanics, in Sep 1899: cf. Einstein to Marić, 10 Sep 1899, ECP, 1, 230, editorial note 8; He read Hume's Treatise of human nature "shortly before the discovery of the theory of relativity," probably for the "Olympia Academy," which was formed in 1902: Cf. Einstein to Schlick, 14 Dec 1915, quoted in ECP, 2, xxiv, note 37.
291. Einstein read Mach, presumably the Mechanics, in Sep 1899: cf. Einstein to Marić, 10 Sep 1899, ECP, 1, 230, editorial note 8; He read Hume's Treatise of human nature "shortly before the discovery of the theory of relativity," probably for the "Olympia Academy," which was formed in 1902: Cf. Einstein to Schlick, 14 Dec 1915, quoted in ECP, 2, xxiv, note 37.
292. Einstein read Mach, presumably the Mechanics, in Sep 1899: cf. Einstein to Marić, 10 Sep 1899, ECP, 1, 230, editorial note 8; He read Hume's Treatise of human nature "shortly before the discovery of the theory of relativity," probably for the "Olympia Academy," which was formed in 1902: Cf. Einstein to Schlick, 14 Dec 1915, quoted in ECP, 2, xxiv, note 37.
293. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper," AP, 17 (1905), 891-921, on 891: "Examples of this sort [regarding electromagnetic induction], as well as the failed attempts to detect any motion of the earth with respect to the "light medium," lead one to suspect that to the concept of absolute motion there correspond no properties of the phenomena, not only in mechanics but also in electrodynamics; on the contrary, for every coordinate system in which the equations of mechanics apply, the same electrodynamic and optical laws apply, as has already been proved for first-order quantities;" "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen," Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4 (1907), 411-462, on 412; "Le principe de relativité et ses conséquences," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, 29 (1910), 5-28, 125-144, on 11-13; Poincaré, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen der experimentellen und der mathematischen Physik," PZ, 2 (1901), 166-171, 182-186, 196-201.
294. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper," AP, 17 (1905), 891-921, on 891: "Examples of this sort [regarding electromagnetic induction], as well as the failed attempts to detect any motion of the earth with respect to the "light medium," lead one to suspect that to the concept of absolute motion there correspond no properties of the phenomena, not only in mechanics but also in electrodynamics; on the contrary, for every coordinate system in which the equations of mechanics apply, the same electrodynamic and optical laws apply, as has already been proved for first-order quantities;" "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen," Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4 (1907), 411-462, on 412; "Le principe de relativité et ses conséquences," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, 29 (1910), 5-28, 125-144, on 11-13; Poincaré, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen der experimentellen und der mathematischen Physik," PZ, 2 (1901), 166-171, 182-186, 196-201.
295. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper," AP, 17 (1905), 891-921, on 891: "Examples of this sort [regarding electromagnetic induction], as well as the failed attempts to detect any motion of the earth with respect to the "light medium," lead one to suspect that to the concept of absolute motion there correspond no properties of the phenomena, not only in mechanics but also in electrodynamics; on the contrary, for every coordinate system in which the equations of mechanics apply, the same electrodynamic and optical laws apply, as has already been proved for first-order quantities;" "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen," Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4 (1907), 411-462, on 412; "Le principe de relativité et ses conséquences," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, 29 (1910), 5-28, 125-144, on 11-13; Poincaré, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen der experimentellen und der mathematischen Physik," PZ, 2 (1901), 166-171, 182-186, 196-201.
296. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper," AP, 17 (1905), 891-921, on 891: "Examples of this sort [regarding electromagnetic induction], as well as the failed attempts to detect any motion of the earth with respect to the "light medium," lead one to suspect that to the concept of absolute motion there correspond no properties of the phenomena, not only in mechanics but also in electrodynamics; on the contrary, for every coordinate system in which the equations of mechanics apply, the same electrodynamic and optical laws apply, as has already been proved for first-order quantities;" "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen," Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4 (1907), 411-462, on 412; "Le principe de relativité et ses conséquences," Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles, 29 (1910), 5-28, 125-144, on 11-13; Poincaré, "Über die Beziehungen zwischen der experimentellen und der mathematischen Physik," PZ, 2 (1901), 166-171, 182-186, 196-201.
297. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik" (ref. 122), 891. I agree with Paty (ref. 2, 54-55) that Einstein's argument was epistemological rather than aesthetic.
298. Föppl (ref. 35), 311. Cf. Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early work," in Thematic origins (ref. 2), 197-217; Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 329-330.
299. Föppl (ref. 35), 311. Cf. Holton, "Influences on Einstein's early work," in Thematic origins (ref. 2), 197-217; Darrigol, "Moving bodies" (ref. 10), 329-330.
300. Wien (ref. 57), also in Verhandlungen (ref. 73), 55; Lorentz (ibid.), 59.
301. Wien (ref. 57), also in Verhandlungen (ref. 73), 55; Lorentz (ibid.), 59.
302. Einstein (ref. 112), 52: " The critical reasoning required for the discovery of this central point [that simultaneity is a relative notion] was decisively promoted, in my case, especially by the reading of David Hume's and Ernst Mach's philosophical writings;" Hertz (ref. 20), 30.
303. Einstein (ref. 118); Einstein to Marić, 17 Dec 1901, ECP, 1, 325-326.
304. Einstein to Ehrenfest, 25 Apr 1912, quoted in ECP, 2, 263: "Ritz's conception [the emission theory], which before the theory of relativity was also mine;" Other letters of Einstein's refered to in ECP, 2, on 264, note 64; probable allusion in the Kyoto lecture (ref. 118), to an attempt at making Lorentz's equations valid in a moving reference system (attached to the source?). Cf. R. Shankland, "Conversations with Albert Einstein," AJP, 31 (1963), 47-57; Stachel, "Einstein and Michelson: The context of discovery and the context of justification," Astronomische Nachrichten, 33 (1982), 47-53.
305. Einstein to Ehrenfest, 25 Apr 1912, quoted in ECP, 2, 263: "Ritz's conception [the emission theory], which before the theory of relativity was also mine;" Other letters of Einstein's refered to in ECP, 2, on 264, note 64; probable allusion in the Kyoto lecture (ref. 118), to an attempt at making Lorentz's equations valid in a moving reference system (attached to the source?). Cf. R. Shankland, "Conversations with Albert Einstein," AJP, 31 (1963), 47-57; Stachel, "Einstein and Michelson: The context of discovery and the context of justification," Astronomische Nachrichten, 33 (1982), 47-53.
306. Einstein to Ehrenfest, 25 Apr 1912, quoted in ECP, 2, 263: "Ritz's conception [the emission theory], which before the theory of relativity was also mine;" Other letters of Einstein's refered to in ECP, 2, on 264, note 64; probable allusion in the Kyoto lecture (ref. 118), to an attempt at making Lorentz's equations valid in a moving reference system (attached to the source?). Cf. R. Shankland, "Conversations with Albert Einstein," AJP, 31 (1963), 47-57; Stachel, "Einstein and Michelson: The context of discovery and the context of justification," Astronomische Nachrichten, 33 (1982), 47-53.
307. Einstein to Ehrenfest, 25 Apr 1912, quoted in ECP, 2, 263: "Ritz's conception [the emission theory], which before the theory of relativity was also mine;" Other letters of Einstein's refered to in ECP, 2, on 264, note 64; probable allusion in the Kyoto lecture (ref. 118), to an attempt at making Lorentz's equations valid in a moving reference system (attached to the source?). Cf. R. Shankland, "Conversations with Albert Einstein," AJP, 31 (1963), 47-57; Stachel, "Einstein and Michelson: The context of discovery and the context of justification," Astronomische Nachrichten, 33 (1982), 47-53.
308. Reported in Shankland (ref. 128). Cf. also Einstein to Ehrenfest, 20 Jun 1912, Einstein Estate, Jerusalem.
309. Einstein to Marić, 4 Apr 1901, ECP, 1, 284. Cf. Abiko (ref. 6).
310. Cf. McCormmach (ref. 9); Pyenson, The young Einstein (ref. 2).
311. Cf. Klein (ref. 6), and McCormmach (ref. 6).
312. Wien, "Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 13 (1904), 641-668, on 652, 657, 665; "Zur Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 392-395; Bucherer (ref. 103), 229. In his "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 576-579, Abraham gave an account of Lorentz's contractile electron, but without the Lorentz transformation. His book of 1905 (ref. 94) contained the Lorentz transformation, but came out too late (in the Spring) to be used by Einstein. Finally, it should be remembered that the Lorentz transformation had appeared in a memoir by Lorentz of 1899 (ref. 90) and in Larmor's Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900).
313. Wien, "Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 13 (1904), 641-668, on 652, 657, 665; "Zur Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 392-395; Bucherer (ref. 103), 229. In his "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 576-579, Abraham gave an account of Lorentz's contractile electron, but without the Lorentz transformation. His book of 1905 (ref. 94) contained the Lorentz transformation, but came out too late (in the Spring) to be used by Einstein. Finally, it should be remembered that the Lorentz transformation had appeared in a memoir by Lorentz of 1899 (ref. 90) and in Larmor's Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900).
314. Wien, "Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 13 (1904), 641-668, on 652, 657, 665; "Zur Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 392-395; Bucherer (ref. 103), 229. In his "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 576-579, Abraham gave an account of Lorentz's contractile electron, but without the Lorentz transformation. His book of 1905 (ref. 94) contained the Lorentz transformation, but came out too late (in the Spring) to be used by Einstein. Finally, it should be remembered that the Lorentz transformation had appeared in a memoir by Lorentz of 1899 (ref. 90) and in Larmor's Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900).
315. Wien, "Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper," AP, 13 (1904), 641-668, on 652, 657, 665; "Zur Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 392-395; Bucherer (ref. 103), 229. In his "Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie," PZ, 5 (1904), 576-579, Abraham gave an account of Lorentz's contractile electron, but without the Lorentz transformation. His book of 1905 (ref. 94) contained the Lorentz transformation, but came out too late (in the Spring) to be used by Einstein. Finally, it should be remembered that the Lorentz transformation had appeared in a memoir by Lorentz of 1899 (ref. 90) and in Larmor's Aether and matter (Cambridge, 1900).
316. Poincaré, La science (ref. 78), 92-93. That Einstein read this text before 1905 is attested in M. Solovine, ed., Albert Einstein: Lettres à Maurice Solovine (Paris, 1956), vii-viii: "This book profoundly impressed us and kept us breathless for weeks on end. " Cf. also Einstein to Besso, 6 Mar 1952, in P. Speziali, ed., Albert Einstein-Michele Besso. Correspondance 1903-1955 (Paris, 1972), 464.
317. Poincaré, La science (ref. 78), 92-93. That Einstein read this text before 1905 is attested in M. Solovine, ed., Albert Einstein: Lettres à Maurice Solovine (Paris, 1956), vii-viii: "This book profoundly impressed us and kept us breathless for weeks on end. " Cf. also Einstein to Besso, 6 Mar 1952, in P. Speziali, ed., Albert Einstein-Michele Besso. Correspondance 1903-1955 (Paris, 1972), 464.
318. Poincaré, La science (ref. 78), 92-93. That Einstein read this text before 1905 is attested in M. Solovine, ed., Albert Einstein: Lettres à Maurice Solovine (Paris, 1956), vii-viii: "This book profoundly impressed us and kept us breathless for weeks on end. " Cf. also Einstein to Besso, 6 Mar 1952, in P. Speziali, ed., Albert Einstein-Michele Besso. Correspondance 1903-1955 (Paris, 1972), 464.
319. Einstein, "Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung des Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie," AP, 20 (1906), 627-633, on 627: "The simple formal considerations that must be developed to prove this assertion [that the conservation of the motion of the center of mass for a system involving electromagnetic radiation implies the relation between mass and energy content] are already, for the main part, contained in a work by Poincaré." Cf. Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
320. Einstein, "Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung des Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie," AP, 20 (1906), 627-633, on 627: "The simple formal considerations that must be developed to prove this assertion [that the conservation of the motion of the center of mass for a system involving electromagnetic radiation implies the relation between mass and energy content] are already, for the main part, contained in a work by Poincaré." Cf. Darrigol, "Poincaré's criticism" (ref. 10).
321. 1/2 for the apparent velocity of light (2nd edn. of Abraham (ref. 94), 368-369).
322. Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip" (1907) (ref. 122), 413n, referred to "E. Cohn's penetrating works, of which, however, I have made no use here."
323. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik" (ref. 122), 892-903. According to the Kyoto lecture (ref. 118), Einstein got the idea of changing the kinematics during a conversation with his friend Michele Besso, a few weeks before he completed the relativity paper.
324. Einstein (ref. 112), 52-53.
325. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik" (ref. 122), 916.
326. Einstein to Seelig, 19 Feb 1955, in C. Seelig, Albert Einstein (Zurich, 1960), 114; Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip" (ref. 122), 413. Cf. A. Pais, "Subtle is the Lord. . ." The science and life of Albert Einstein (Oxford, 1982), 169-172.
327. Einstein to Seelig, 19 Feb 1955, in C. Seelig, Albert Einstein (Zurich, 1960), 114; Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip" (ref. 122), 413. Cf. A. Pais, "Subtle is the Lord. . ." The science and life of Albert Einstein (Oxford, 1982), 169-172.
328. Einstein to Seelig, 19 Feb 1955, in C. Seelig, Albert Einstein (Zurich, 1960), 114; Einstein, "Relativitätsprinzip" (ref. 122), 413. Cf. A. Pais, "Subtle is the Lord. . ." The science and life of Albert Einstein (Oxford, 1982), 169-172.
329. Exceptions are Scribner (ref. 80); Cuvaj (ref. 80), 77-78; and Stachel et al, ECP, 2, 308n.
330. Exceptions are Scribner (ref. 80); Cuvaj (ref. 80), 77-78; and Stachel et al, ECP, 2, 308n.
331. Einstein (ref. 112), 34-36.
332. Cohn's early reaction to Einstein's paper is not known. In a discussion held in Zurich in 1911, Einstein emphasized the difference between Lorentz and Cohn: "Cohn's theory must be regarded as fundamentally different" (ECP, 3, 445, after downplaying the difference between Lorentz and Minkowski). In 1913 Cohn published Physikalisches über Raum und Zeit (Leipzig, 1913), which Einstein regarded as "an excellent presentation" of relativity theory: Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 182.
333. Cohn's early reaction to Einstein's paper is not known. In a discussion held in Zurich in 1911, Einstein emphasized the difference between Lorentz and Cohn: "Cohn's theory must be regarded as fundamentally different" (ECP, 3, 445, after downplaying the difference between Lorentz and Minkowski). In 1913 Cohn published Physikalisches über Raum und Zeit (Leipzig, 1913), which Einstein regarded as "an excellent presentation" of relativity theory: Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 182.
334. This reasoning was first published by M. Laue, in "Die Mitführung des Lichtes durch bewegte Körper in der Relativitätstheorie," AP, 23 (1907), 989-990, and reproduced by Einstein (ref. 122), "Relativitätsprinzip" (1907), 426. Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 278-280.
335. This reasoning was first published by M. Laue, in "Die Mitführung des Lichtes durch bewegte Körper in der Relativitätstheorie," AP, 23 (1907), 989-990, and reproduced by Einstein (ref. 122), "Relativitätsprinzip" (1907), 426. Cf. Miller (ref. 2), 278-280.
336. Cf. R. Gans, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Medien," AP, 16 (1905), 516-534, 18 (1905), 172-186. Laue criticized Gans' calculations: cf. Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10), note 37.
337. Cf. R. Gans, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Medien," AP, 16 (1905), 516-534, 18 (1905), 172-186. Laue criticized Gans' calculations: cf. Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10), note 37.
338. Cf. R. Gans, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Medien," AP, 16 (1905), 516-534, 18 (1905), 172-186. Laue criticized Gans' calculations: cf. Darrigol, "Cohn's electrodynamics" (ref. 10), note 37.
339. Poincaré argued the inductive nature of principles, e.g., in Foundations (ref. 84) (Saint Louis lecture, 1904), 301: "These principles are results of experiments boldly generalized; but they seem to derive from their very generality a high degree of certainty."
340. Poincaré never publicly commented on Einstein's theory. After meeting him at the Solvay conference in 1911, Einstein reported to his friend Zangger: "Poincaré was in general simply antagonistic (against the theory of relativity) and, for all his acuity, showed little understanding of the situation" (Einstein to Zangger, 15 Nov 1991, quoted in Miller (ref. 2), 255).
341. Cf. Poincaré, "La dynamique de l'électron" (1908), PO 9, 567. More exactly, Poincaré derived the Lorentz contraction from the convention that lengths are measured by the time taken by light to travel through them and from the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. However, the latter result can be derived from the relativity principle.
342. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik" (ref. 122), 892: "In order to distinguish this coordinate system verbally from others which will be introduced later, and for the precision of the presentation (Vorstellung), we call it the 'system at rest'."
343. In ref. 149 (1908), PO 9, 586, Poincaré reasoned in similar terms to defend Newtonian mechanics.
344. Poincaré is likely to have reasoned in these terms, in analogy with his defense of Euclidean geometry. Cf. Paty (ref. 2), 264-271.
345. Such arguments can be found, e.g., in the 2nd edn. (1908) of Abraham (ref. 94).
346. At the Naturforscherversammlung of 1906, Planck was the only physicist to support Einstein's theory. Other physicists favored the electromagnetic worldview, which they judged more progressive. Sommerfeld declared: "I would suspect that the gentlemen under forty would prefer the electrodynamic postulate, those over forty the mechanical-relativist postulate." Cf. PZ, 7 (1906), 759-761; Jungnickel and McCormmach (ref. 1), 2, 250.
347. Poincaré expressed this opinion in (ref. 149) (1908), PO 9, 572.
348. Cf. Einstein, "Über das Relativitätsprinzip" (ref. 122), (1907), 439: "In my opinion, a small probability should be ascribed to these theories [of Abraham and Bucherer], since their fundamental assumptions about the mass of a moving electron are not supported by theoretical systems that embrace wider complexes of phenomena."
349. Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt," AP, 17 (1905), 132-148. Einstein took this view in "Bemerkungen zu der Notiz von Hrn. Paul Ehrenfest: 'Die Translation deformierbarer Elektronen und der Flächensatz'," AP, 23 (1907), 206-208.
350. Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt," AP, 17 (1905), 132-148. Einstein took this view in "Bemerkungen zu der Notiz von Hrn. Paul Ehrenfest: 'Die Translation deformierbarer Elektronen und der Flächensatz'," AP, 23 (1907), 206-208.
351. No comment of Einstein's on Bucherer's theory of relativity is known.
352. Cf. Planck, "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen," PZ, 7 (1906), 753-761.
353. Lorentz's reaction to Bucherer's relativity theory is unknown. However, he had a good opinion of Bucherer's work in general, as revealed by a report written after 1908 (AHQP, following the Bucherer-Lorentz letters). His objection to Abraham's electron is in ref. 89 (1904). For his opinion about Einstein's theory, cf. e.g., Das Relativitätsprinzip (Leipzig, 1920), 23, quoted in Pais (ref. 141), 166: "It is certainly remarkable that these relativity concepts, also those concerning time, have found such a rapid acceptance. The acceptance of these concepts belongs mainly to epistemology. . . .It is certain, however, that it depends to a large extent on the way one is accustomed to think whether one is most attracted to one or another interpretation. As far as this lecturer is concerned, he finds a certain satisfaction in the older interpretations, according to which the ether possesses at least some substantiality, space and time can be sharply separated, and simultaneity without further specification can be spoken of."
354. Whittaker (ref. 11), 2, chapt. 2. I agree with Holton, Miller, and Paty (ref. 2) that Whittaker seriously underestimated the differences between Poincaré's and Einstein's theories. "The Lorentz-Einstein theory" is found, e.g., in Planck (ref. 106), and in the ensuing discussion.
355. For the 19th century, good examples are: P. Heimann on Hertz's reading of Maxwell (ref. 29); C. Smith and N. Wise on British readings of Laplacian classics (Energy and empire: A biographical study of Lord Kelvin (Cambridge, 1989); Jungnickel and R. McCormmach on German readings of Laplacian classics (ref. 1); M. Klein, "Gibbs on Clausius," HSPS, 1 (1969), 127-149; J. Buchwald on Heaviside "redressing" Maxwell (ref. 28).
356. For the 19th century, good examples are: P. Heimann on Hertz's reading of Maxwell (ref. 29); C. Smith and N. Wise on British readings of Laplacian classics (Energy and empire: A biographical study of Lord Kelvin (Cambridge, 1989); Jungnickel and R. McCormmach on German readings of Laplacian classics (ref. 1); M. Klein, "Gibbs on Clausius," HSPS, 1 (1969), 127-149; J. Buchwald on Heaviside "redressing" Maxwell (ref. 28).
357. For the 19th century, good examples are: P. Heimann on Hertz's reading of Maxwell (ref. 29); C. Smith and N. Wise on British readings of Laplacian classics (Energy and empire: A biographical study of Lord Kelvin (Cambridge, 1989); Jungnickel and R. McCormmach on German readings of Laplacian classics (ref. 1); M. Klein, "Gibbs on Clausius," HSPS, 1 (1969), 127-149; J. Buchwald on Heaviside "redressing" Maxwell (ref. 28).