The authority of human nature: The Schädellehre of Franz Joseph Gall

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 17-42

  Van Wyhe, John ^a  

^a Dept of Hist and Philos of Sci ^*  (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUSTRIA; GERMANY; HISTORY; PSYCHOLOGY; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE;

AUSTRIA; GERMANY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; PHRENOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY;

EID: 0042736896     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087401004599     Document Type: Review

References (250)

1. E. Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital 1794-1848, Baltimore, 1967, 172.
2. E. Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth-Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts, Berkeley, 1987.
3. S. Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago and London, 1994.
4. R. Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge, 1984, 40, 225-6; however, M. Hagner, Homo Cerebralis: Der Wandel vom Seelenorgan zum Gehirn, Berlin, 1997, 170 interprets Gall's focus on popular audiences as rebelliousness against 'the establishment'; R. M. Young, Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier, Oxford, 1970 (reprinted 1990).
5. R. Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge, 1984, 40, 225-6; however, M. Hagner, Homo Cerebralis: Der Wandel vom Seelenorgan zum Gehirn, Berlin, 1997, 170 interprets Gall's focus on popular audiences as rebelliousness against 'the establishment'; R. M. Young, Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier, Oxford, 1970 (reprinted 1990).
6. R. Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain, Cambridge, 1984, 40, 225-6; however, M. Hagner, Homo Cerebralis: Der Wandel vom Seelenorgan zum Gehirn, Berlin, 1997, 170 interprets Gall's focus on popular audiences as rebelliousness against 'the establishment'; R. M. Young, Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier, Oxford, 1970 (reprinted 1990).
7. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
8. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
9. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
10. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
11. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
12. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
13. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
14. Biographical accounts of Gall include G. A. L. Fossati, 'Gall', Nouvelle Biographie Générale, 46 vols., Paris, 1857, xix, 271-83; C. F. Wells, Some Account of the Life and Labours of Dr François Joseph Gall: Founder of Phrenology and His Disciple Dr John Gaspar Spurzheim, London, 1896; and P. Möbius, 'Franz Joseph Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1905, vii; R. M. Young, 'Gall', in Dictionary of Scientific Biography (ed. C. C. Gillispie), New York, 1970-6; H. Heintel, Leben und Werk von Franz Joseph Gall: Eine Chronik, Würzburg, 1986, which is a well-researched source of information about Gall's life. An important bibliography of Gall's writings is H. Heintel and B. Heintel, Franz Joseph Gall: Bibliographie mit einem Portrait und 13 Abbildungen, Stuttgart, 1985. Additional bibliographical references are included in J. van Wyhe, The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology).
15. I am grateful to Wolfgang Schütz for generously providing me with many details on Gall's family and their circumstances, the fruits of his own Gall research.
16. J. Hermann, Tabula Affinitum Animalium, Strasbourg, 1783.
17. E. Ackerknecht and H. Vallois, Franz Joseph Gall, Inventor of Phrenology, and His Collection (tr. C. St Léon) (Studies in Medical History), Madison, WI, 1956, 7.
18. Franz II is often incorrectly named Franz I in accounts of Gall. However, Franz II (1768-1835), since 1792 Holy Roman Emperor, in 1806 became Franz I of Austria.
19. During Gall's lecture tour he wrote to a friend, 'I am urgently invited to all parts of the world and in Munich they have made me as generous a petition as Berlin. You know, my dear friend, that I prefer to be my own lord. It is enough to be tied down by a wench's apron strings.' Gall to Andreas Streicher, 3 May 1805, in M. Neuburger, 'Briefe Galls an Andreas und Nannette Streicher', Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin (1917), 10, 3-70, 10.
20. R. Haym, Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken dargestellt, Berlin, 1877-85; R. C. Clark, Herder: His Life and Thought, Berkeley, 1955.
21. R. Haym, Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken dargestellt, Berlin, 1877-85; R. C. Clark, Herder: His Life and Thought, Berkeley, 1955.
22. On Herder's influence on Gall and other theorists see Hagner, op. cit. (4); Claudio Pogliano, 'Between form and function: a new science of man', in The Enchanted Loom: Chapters in the History of Neuroscience (ed. Pietro Corsi), Oxford, 1991, 144-203; and E. Lesky, 'Gall und Herder', Clio Medica (1967), 2, 85-96.
23. On Herder's influence on Gall and other theorists see Hagner, op. cit. (4); Claudio Pogliano, 'Between form and function: a new science of man', in The Enchanted Loom: Chapters in the History of Neuroscience (ed. Pietro Corsi), Oxford, 1991, 144-203; and E. Lesky, 'Gall und Herder', Clio Medica (1967), 2, 85-96.
24. On Herder's influence on Gall and other theorists see Hagner, op. cit. (4); Claudio Pogliano, 'Between form and function: a new science of man', in The Enchanted Loom: Chapters in the History of Neuroscience (ed. Pietro Corsi), Oxford, 1991, 144-203; and E. Lesky, 'Gall und Herder', Clio Medica (1967), 2, 85-96.
25. Pogliano, op. cit. (12), 152.
26. J. G. von Herder, Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache, Berlin, 1772, Part 1, sec. 1.
27. J. G. von Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Riga and Leipzig, 1784-91, quoted in Clarke and Jacyna, op. cit. (2), 230-1
28. J. G. von Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Riga and Leipzig, 1784-91, quoted in Clarke and Jacyna, op. cit. (2), 230-1
29. F. Schulz, Die Schädellehre Dr Gall's und seine Restschädelsammlung im Städtischen Rollett Museum zu Baden bei Wien, Vienna, self-published, 1973.
30. Gall quotes Reimarus frequently in his first work, Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen, Volume 1, Vienna, 1791 (no more published). See Lesky, op. cit. (12), 88; and S. Oehler-Klein, Die Schädellehre Franz Joseph Galls in Literatur und Kritik des 19. Jahrhunderts: zur Rezeptionsgeschichte einer biologisch-medizinischen Theorie der Physiognomik und Psychologie, Stuttgart and New York, 1990, 77-9.
31. Gall quotes Reimarus frequently in his first work, Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen, Volume 1, Vienna, 1791 (no more published). See Lesky, op. cit. (12), 88; and S. Oehler-Klein, Die Schädellehre Franz Joseph Galls in Literatur und Kritik des 19. Jahrhunderts: zur Rezeptionsgeschichte einer biologisch-medizinischen Theorie der Physiognomik und Psychologie, Stuttgart and New York, 1990, 77-9.
32. Gall quotes Reimarus frequently in his first work, Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur und Kunst im gesunden und kranken Zustande des Menschen, Volume 1, Vienna, 1791 (no more published). See Lesky, op. cit. (12), 88; and S. Oehler-Klein, Die Schädellehre Franz Joseph Galls in Literatur und Kritik des 19. Jahrhunderts: zur Rezeptionsgeschichte einer biologisch-medizinischen Theorie der Physiognomik und Psychologie, Stuttgart and New York, 1990, 77-9.
33. Schulz, op. cit. (16), 35.
34. On Gall's studies in Vienna and the medical context of the time see E. Lesky, 'Wiener Allgemeine Krankenhaus. Seine Gründung und Wirkung auf deutsche Spitäler', Clio Medica (1967), 2, 23-37.
35. It is often erroneously reported that Gall was the physician to the asylum or the Vienna general hospital when in fact he was a private physician.
36. For greater detail on Gall's formative influences see Lesky, op. cit. (12).
37. Clarke and Jacyna, op. cit. (2).
38. O. Temkin, 'Gall and the phrenological movement', Bulletin of the History of Medicine (1947), 21, 275-321, 281; L. Sass, Madness and Modernism, Cambridge, MA and London, 1992, 327-9.
39. O. Temkin, 'Gall and the phrenological movement', Bulletin of the History of Medicine (1947), 21, 275-321, 281; L. Sass, Madness and Modernism, Cambridge, MA and London, 1992, 327-9.
40. Lesky, op. cit. (12), 87, 91.
41. See for example Gall, op. cit. (17), 198.
42. There is perceptive analysis of Gall's justifications for his faculties in Young, op. cit. (4), 39-42; see also Gall, On the Functions of the Brain and of Each of its Parts: with Observations on the Possibility of Determining the Instincts, Propensities, and Talents, or the Moral and Intellectual Dispositions of Men and Animals, by the Configuration of the Brain and Head, 6 vols., Boston, MA, 1835. The theory that Gall derived his faculties from the Scottish 'common sense' school is without foundation.
43. There is perceptive analysis of Gall's justifications for his faculties in Young, op. cit. (4), 39-42; see also Gall, On the Functions of the Brain and of Each of its Parts: with Observations on the Possibility of Determining the Instincts, Propensities, and Talents, or the Moral and Intellectual Dispositions of Men and Animals, by the Configuration of the Brain and Head, 6 vols., Boston, MA, 1835. The theory that Gall derived his faculties from the Scottish 'common sense' school is without foundation.
44. Some of the oldest remaining items from Gall's collection are preserved in the Rollett Museum in the city of Baden near Vienna. See Schulz, op. cit. (16). The majority of Gall's collection is kept at the Musée de l'homme in Paris. See Ackerknecht and Vallois, op. cit. (8). A complete catalogue of Gall's collection is reproduced in 'Catalogue, numerical and descriptive, of heads of men and animals, which composed the collection made by the late Dr Gall. Transcribed by Mons. A. A. Royer, of the Jardin des Plantes, from the manuscript drawn up by M. le Dr Deancey, the pupil and friend of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1829/30), 6, 480-99, 583-602, and (1831/2), 7, 27-36, 181-5, 250-3.
45. Some of the oldest remaining items from Gall's collection are preserved in the Rollett Museum in the city of Baden near Vienna. See Schulz, op. cit. (16). The majority of Gall's collection is kept at the Musée de l'homme in Paris. See Ackerknecht and Vallois, op. cit. (8). A complete catalogue of Gall's collection is reproduced in 'Catalogue, numerical and descriptive, of heads of men and animals, which composed the collection made by the late Dr Gall. Transcribed by Mons. A. A. Royer, of the Jardin des Plantes, from the manuscript drawn up by M. le Dr Deancey, the pupil and friend of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1829/30), 6, 480-99, 583-602, and (1831/2), 7, 27-36, 181-5, 250-3.
46. Some of the oldest remaining items from Gall's collection are preserved in the Rollett Museum in the city of Baden near Vienna. See Schulz, op. cit. (16). The majority of Gall's collection is kept at the Musée de l'homme in Paris. See Ackerknecht and Vallois, op. cit. (8). A complete catalogue of Gall's collection is reproduced in 'Catalogue, numerical and descriptive, of heads of men and animals, which composed the collection made by the late Dr Gall. Transcribed by Mons. A. A. Royer, of the Jardin des Plantes, from the manuscript drawn up by M. le Dr Deancey, the pupil and friend of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1829/30), 6, 480-99, 583-602, and (1831/2), 7, 27-36, 181-5, 250-3.
47. Some of the oldest remaining items from Gall's collection are preserved in the Rollett Museum in the city of Baden near Vienna. See Schulz, op. cit. (16). The majority of Gall's collection is kept at the Musée de l'homme in Paris. See Ackerknecht and Vallois, op. cit. (8). A complete catalogue of Gall's collection is reproduced in 'Catalogue, numerical and descriptive, of heads of men and animals, which composed the collection made by the late Dr Gall. Transcribed by Mons. A. A. Royer, of the Jardin des Plantes, from the manuscript drawn up by M. le Dr Deancey, the pupil and friend of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1829/30), 6, 480-99, 583-602, and (1831/2), 7, 27-36, 181-5, 250-3.
48. See, for example, anon., Beytrag zu Hrn. Dr Galls Schedellehre, oder Kurze Lebensbeschreibung des Franz Mühlbergers, eines Jünglings, dessen, als eines vorzüglichen Rechners, Büste in des Hrn. Dr Galls Sammlung merkwürdiger Köpfe aufgestellt ist, Vienna, 1801; Gustav Gugitz, 'Mozarts Schädel und Dr Gall', Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft (1934), 16, 32-9. On cabinets of curiosity see Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature, Berkeley, CA, 1994.
49. See, for example, anon., Beytrag zu Hrn. Dr Galls Schedellehre, oder Kurze Lebensbeschreibung des Franz Mühlbergers, eines Jünglings, dessen, als eines vorzüglichen Rechners, Büste in des Hrn. Dr Galls Sammlung merkwürdiger Köpfe aufgestellt ist, Vienna, 1801; Gustav Gugitz, 'Mozarts Schädel und Dr Gall', Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft (1934), 16, 32-9. On cabinets of curiosity see Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature, Berkeley, CA, 1994.
50. See, for example, anon., Beytrag zu Hrn. Dr Galls Schedellehre, oder Kurze Lebensbeschreibung des Franz Mühlbergers, eines Jünglings, dessen, als eines vorzüglichen Rechners, Büste in des Hrn. Dr Galls Sammlung merkwürdiger Köpfe aufgestellt ist, Vienna, 1801; Gustav Gugitz, 'Mozarts Schädel und Dr Gall', Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft (1934), 16, 32-9. On cabinets of curiosity see Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature, Berkeley, CA, 1994.
51. Quoted in E. Lesky, Franz Joseph Gall 1758-1828: Naturforscher und Anthropologe, Stuttgart, 1979, 74-5.
52. It is often alleged incorrectly in Anglo-American historiography that Gall called his doctrine craniology or cranioscopy.
53. T. I. M. Forster, 'Observations on a new system of phrenology, or the anatomy and physiology of the brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim', Philosophical Magazine (1815), 45, 44-50. See Cooter, op. cit. (4), 59-64. The word was used as early as 1805 in the sense that we might use 'psychology' today by the American physician Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in his lectures, later published as On the Utility of a Knowledge of the Faculties and Operations of the Human Mind, Philadelphia, 1811, 271. Rush also used the term in On the Opinions and Modes of Practice of Hippocrates, Philadelphia, 1811, 293. See also E. T. Carlson and P. S. Noel, 'Origins of the word "phrenology"', American Journal of Psychiatry (1970), 127, 694-7.
54. T. I. M. Forster, 'Observations on a new system of phrenology, or the anatomy and physiology of the brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim', Philosophical Magazine (1815), 45, 44-50. See Cooter, op. cit. (4), 59-64. The word was used as early as 1805 in the sense that we might use 'psychology' today by the American physician Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in his lectures, later published as On the Utility of a Knowledge of the Faculties and Operations of the Human Mind, Philadelphia, 1811, 271. Rush also used the term in On the Opinions and Modes of Practice of Hippocrates, Philadelphia, 1811, 293. See also E. T. Carlson and P. S. Noel, 'Origins of the word "phrenology"', American Journal of Psychiatry (1970), 127, 694-7.
55. T. I. M. Forster, 'Observations on a new system of phrenology, or the anatomy and physiology of the brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim', Philosophical Magazine (1815), 45, 44-50. See Cooter, op. cit. (4), 59-64. The word was used as early as 1805 in the sense that we might use 'psychology' today by the American physician Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in his lectures, later published as On the Utility of a Knowledge of the Faculties and Operations of the Human Mind, Philadelphia, 1811, 271. Rush also used the term in On the Opinions and Modes of Practice of Hippocrates, Philadelphia, 1811, 293. See also E. T. Carlson and P. S. Noel, 'Origins of the word "phrenology"', American Journal of Psychiatry (1970), 127, 694-7.
56. T. I. M. Forster, 'Observations on a new system of phrenology, or the anatomy and physiology of the brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim', Philosophical Magazine (1815), 45, 44-50. See Cooter, op. cit. (4), 59-64. The word was used as early as 1805 in the sense that we might use 'psychology' today by the American physician Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in his lectures, later published as On the Utility of a Knowledge of the Faculties and Operations of the Human Mind, Philadelphia, 1811, 271. Rush also used the term in On the Opinions and Modes of Practice of Hippocrates, Philadelphia, 1811, 293. See also E. T. Carlson and P. S. Noel, 'Origins of the word "phrenology"', American Journal of Psychiatry (1970), 127, 694-7.
57. T. I. M. Forster, 'Observations on a new system of phrenology, or the anatomy and physiology of the brain, of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim', Philosophical Magazine (1815), 45, 44-50. See Cooter, op. cit. (4), 59-64. The word was used as early as 1805 in the sense that we might use 'psychology' today by the American physician Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in his lectures, later published as On the Utility of a Knowledge of the Faculties and Operations of the Human Mind, Philadelphia, 1811, 271. Rush also used the term in On the Opinions and Modes of Practice of Hippocrates, Philadelphia, 1811, 293. See also E. T. Carlson and P. S. Noel, 'Origins of the word "phrenology"', American Journal of Psychiatry (1970), 127, 694-7.
58. F. J. Gall, 'Schreiben über seinen bereits geendigten Prodromus über die Verrichtungen des Gehirns der Menschen und der Thiere an Herrn Jos. Fr. von Retzer', Der neue Teutsche Merkur (1798), 3, 311-32, 314, 317, 318, 322, 322-3.
59. P. Wegner, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Schleswig-Holstein', Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte (1986), 111, 119-41, 131. Thirty-one organs were reported by an auditor of Gall in 1802. See also anon., [Joseph Schelle?] Ausführliche Darstellung des Gall'schen System's der Schädellehre: nach den neuesten Vorlesungen des Herrn Doctor Gall bearbeitet, Magdeburg, 1805, which mentions thirty organs; F. H. Martens, Leichtfassliche Darstellung der Theorie des Gehirn- und Schädelbaues und der daraus entspringenden physiognomischen und psychologischen Folgerungen des Herrn Dr Gall in Wien. Mit Rücksicht auf die bisher darüber erschienenen Schriften. Zur belehrenden Unterhaltung für das grosse Publikum in Briefform, Leipzig, 1803, has twenty-nine Gall organs listed; and J. T. F. K. Arnold, Dr Joseph Gall's System der Gehirn- und Schädelbaues nach den bis jetzt über seine Theorie erschienenen Schriften, Erfurt, 1805, has thirty-three organs named (excluding two 'as yet unknown organs').
60. P. Wegner, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Schleswig-Holstein', Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte (1986), 111, 119-41, 131. Thirty-one organs were reported by an auditor of Gall in 1802. See also anon., [Joseph Schelle?] Ausführliche Darstellung des Gall'schen System's der Schädellehre: nach den neuesten Vorlesungen des Herrn Doctor Gall bearbeitet, Magdeburg, 1805, which mentions thirty organs; F. H. Martens, Leichtfassliche Darstellung der Theorie des Gehirn- und Schädelbaues und der daraus entspringenden physiognomischen und psychologischen Folgerungen des Herrn Dr Gall in Wien. Mit Rücksicht auf die bisher darüber erschienenen Schriften. Zur belehrenden Unterhaltung für das grosse Publikum in Briefform, Leipzig, 1803, has twenty-nine Gall organs listed; and J. T. F. K. Arnold, Dr Joseph Gall's System der Gehirn- und Schädelbaues nach den bis jetzt über seine Theorie erschienenen Schriften, Erfurt, 1805, has thirty-three organs named (excluding two 'as yet unknown organs').
61. P. Wegner, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Schleswig-Holstein', Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte (1986), 111, 119-41, 131. Thirty-one organs were reported by an auditor of Gall in 1802. See also anon., [Joseph Schelle?] Ausführliche Darstellung des Gall'schen System's der Schädellehre: nach den neuesten Vorlesungen des Herrn Doctor Gall bearbeitet, Magdeburg, 1805, which mentions thirty organs; F. H. Martens, Leichtfassliche Darstellung der Theorie des Gehirn- und Schädelbaues und der daraus entspringenden physiognomischen und psychologischen Folgerungen des Herrn Dr Gall in Wien. Mit Rücksicht auf die bisher darüber erschienenen Schriften. Zur belehrenden Unterhaltung für das grosse Publikum in Briefform, Leipzig, 1803, has twenty-nine Gall organs listed; and J. T. F. K. Arnold, Dr Joseph Gall's System der Gehirn- und Schädelbaues nach den bis jetzt über seine Theorie erschienenen Schriften, Erfurt, 1805, has thirty-three organs named (excluding two 'as yet unknown organs').
62. P. Wegner, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Schleswig-Holstein', Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte (1986), 111, 119-41, 131. Thirty-one organs were reported by an auditor of Gall in 1802. See also anon., [Joseph Schelle?] Ausführliche Darstellung des Gall'schen System's der Schädellehre: nach den neuesten Vorlesungen des Herrn Doctor Gall bearbeitet, Magdeburg, 1805, which mentions thirty organs; F. H. Martens, Leichtfassliche Darstellung der Theorie des Gehirn- und Schädelbaues und der daraus entspringenden physiognomischen und psychologischen Folgerungen des Herrn Dr Gall in Wien. Mit Rücksicht auf die bisher darüber erschienenen Schriften. Zur belehrenden Unterhaltung für das grosse Publikum in Briefform, Leipzig, 1803, has twenty-nine Gall organs listed; and J. T. F. K. Arnold, Dr Joseph Gall's System der Gehirn- und Schädelbaues nach den bis jetzt über seine Theorie erschienenen Schriften, Erfurt, 1805, has thirty-three organs named (excluding two 'as yet unknown organs').
63. R. Campe and M. Schneider, Geschichten der Physiognomik, Freiburg, 1996; and C. Schmölders, Das Vorurteil im Leibe: Eine Einführung in die Physiognomik, 2nd edn., Berlin, 1997.
64. R. Campe and M. Schneider, Geschichten der Physiognomik, Freiburg, 1996; and C. Schmölders, Das Vorurteil im Leibe: Eine Einführung in die Physiognomik, 2nd edn., Berlin, 1997.
65. P. Camper, Über den natürlichen Unterschied der Gesichtszüge, Berlin, 1792.
66. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
67. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
68. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
69. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
70. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
71. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
72. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
73. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330. English translations of this letter can be found in Gall, op. cit. (26) i; D. Goyder, My battle for life: The Autobiography of a Phrenologist, London, 1857, 143-52; Wells, op. cit. (5); P. Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: from Gall to Geschwind, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1994, 3-27; and van Wyhe, op. cit. (5). Earlier reports on Gall in Der neue Teutsche Merkur were 'Galls Vorlesungen, seine Sammlung abgeformter Köpfe' (1798), 1, 343-5; and 'Galls neueste Schrift über das Gehirn' (1798), 2, 184-96.
74. Anon., op. cit. (33).
75. Anon., op. cit. (28); L. F. Froriep, Darstellung der ganzen auf Untersuchungen der Verrichtungen des Gehirnes gegründeten Theorie der Physiognomik des Dr Gall in Wien, Weimar, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802; Martens, op. cit. (33); Medical and Physical Journal (1800), 4, 90.
76. Anon., op. cit. (28); L. F. Froriep, Darstellung der ganzen auf Untersuchungen der Verrichtungen des Gehirnes gegründeten Theorie der Physiognomik des Dr Gall in Wien, Weimar, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802; Martens, op. cit. (33); Medical and Physical Journal (1800), 4, 90.
77. Anon., op. cit. (28); L. F. Froriep, Darstellung der ganzen auf Untersuchungen der Verrichtungen des Gehirnes gegründeten Theorie der Physiognomik des Dr Gall in Wien, Weimar, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802; Martens, op. cit. (33); Medical and Physical Journal (1800), 4, 90.
78. Anon., op. cit. (28); L. F. Froriep, Darstellung der ganzen auf Untersuchungen der Verrichtungen des Gehirnes gegründeten Theorie der Physiognomik des Dr Gall in Wien, Weimar, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802; Martens, op. cit. (33); Medical and Physical Journal (1800), 4, 90.
79. E. Ebstein, 'Franz Joseph Gall im Kampf um seine Lehre: auf Grund unbekannter Briefe an Bertuch usw. sowie im Urtheile seiner Zeitgenossen', in Essays on the History of Medicine Presented to Karl Sudhoff (ed. C. Singer and E. Sigerist), London and Zürich, 1924, 275; and H. Heintel, 'Pränumeration auf ein Galisches Werk', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1986), 21, 353-5.
80. E. Ebstein, 'Franz Joseph Gall im Kampf um seine Lehre: auf Grund unbekannter Briefe an Bertuch usw. sowie im Urtheile seiner Zeitgenossen', in Essays on the History of Medicine Presented to Karl Sudhoff (ed. C. Singer and E. Sigerist), London and Zürich, 1924, 275; and H. Heintel, 'Pränumeration auf ein Galisches Werk', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1986), 21, 353-5.
81. E. Lesky, 'Der angeklagte Gall', Gesnerus: Revue trimestrielle publiée par la société d'histoire de la médecine et des sciences naturelles (1981), 38, 301-11.
82. The decree is reprinted in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 57 and elsewhere.
83. 'An Account of Dr Gall's System of Craniology', Medical and Physical Journal (1806), 15, 201-13, 201; republished as 'Account of Dr Gall's doctrine of the brain, or craniology', Monthly Magazine (1806), 21, 197-203.
84. 'An Account of Dr Gall's System of Craniology', Medical and Physical Journal (1806), 15, 201-13, 201; republished as 'Account of Dr Gall's doctrine of the brain, or craniology', Monthly Magazine (1806), 21, 197-203.
85. This too is unfounded. See Index Librorum Prohibitorum, Rome, 1949.
86. G. Combe, 'On the institutions of Germany', Phrenological Journal (1838), 11, 22-33; Charles Gibbon, The Life of George Combe, Author of 'The Constitution of Man', 2 vols., London, 1878, ii, 18; also E. Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the 19th Century, Baltimore and London, 1976, 4-8; and Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46.
87. G. Combe, 'On the institutions of Germany', Phrenological Journal (1838), 11, 22-33; Charles Gibbon, The Life of George Combe, Author of 'The Constitution of Man', 2 vols., London, 1878, ii, 18; also E. Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the 19th Century, Baltimore and London, 1976, 4-8; and Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46.
88. G. Combe, 'On the institutions of Germany', Phrenological Journal (1838), 11, 22-33; Charles Gibbon, The Life of George Combe, Author of 'The Constitution of Man', 2 vols., London, 1878, ii, 18; also E. Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the 19th Century, Baltimore and London, 1976, 4-8; and Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46.
89. G. Combe, 'On the institutions of Germany', Phrenological Journal (1838), 11, 22-33; Charles Gibbon, The Life of George Combe, Author of 'The Constitution of Man', 2 vols., London, 1878, ii, 18; also E. Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the 19th Century, Baltimore and London, 1976, 4-8; and Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46.
90. Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46. See also E. Lesky, 'Die Wiener Medizin in der Stifft-Zeit 1803-1836', in idem, Die Wiener medizinische Schule im 19. Jahrhundert, 2nd edn., Graz, 1978.
91. Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46. See also E. Lesky, 'Die Wiener Medizin in der Stifft-Zeit 1803-1836', in idem, Die Wiener medizinische Schule im 19. Jahrhundert, 2nd edn., Graz, 1978.
92. Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 46. See also E. Lesky, 'Die Wiener Medizin in der Stifft-Zeit 1803-1836', in idem, Die Wiener medizinische Schule im 19. Jahrhundert, 2nd edn., Graz, 1978.
93. On the politics of late eighteenth-century Vienna see P. Bernard, 'Francis II and the emergence of the police state', in idem, From the Enlightenment to the Police State: The Public Life of Johann Anton Pergen, Urbana and Chicago, 1991; and M. Seliger and K. Ucakar, Wien: politische Geschichte 1740-1934: Entwicklung und Bestimmungskräfte grossstädtischer Politik, 2 vols., Vienna, 1985, i, 82-3.
94. On the politics of late eighteenth-century Vienna see P. Bernard, 'Francis II and the emergence of the police state', in idem, From the Enlightenment to the Police State: The Public Life of Johann Anton Pergen, Urbana and Chicago, 1991; and M. Seliger and K. Ucakar, Wien: politische Geschichte 1740-1934: Entwicklung und Bestimmungskräfte grossstädtischer Politik, 2 vols., Vienna, 1985, i, 82-3.
95. On the politics of late eighteenth-century Vienna see P. Bernard, 'Francis II and the emergence of the police state', in idem, From the Enlightenment to the Police State: The Public Life of Johann Anton Pergen, Urbana and Chicago, 1991; and M. Seliger and K. Ucakar, Wien: politische Geschichte 1740-1934: Entwicklung und Bestimmungskräfte grossstädtischer Politik, 2 vols., Vienna, 1985, i, 82-3.
96. Gall, op. cit. (32), 330.
97. G. Combe, 'Preliminary dissertation on the progress and application of phrenology', Transactions of the Phrenological Society, Edinburgh, 1824, 1-62. The first published reference in Britain that Gall was expelled from Vienna is 'Account of Dr Gall's doctrine of the brain', op. cit. (42). Many recent examples could be attested.
98. G. Combe, 'Preliminary dissertation on the progress and application of phrenology', Transactions of the Phrenological Society, Edinburgh, 1824, 1-62. The first published reference in Britain that Gall was expelled from Vienna is 'Account of Dr Gall's doctrine of the brain', op. cit. (42). Many recent examples could be attested.
99. F. J. Gall and G. Spurzheim, Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur las possibilité de reconnoitre plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration de leurs têtes, 4 vols., Paris, 1810, i, pp. xvi, xvii. As early as 1802 it was said that Gall wanted to leave Vienna in order to publish. See 'Ueber Dr Gall's Vorlesung in Wien und das kaiserliche Verbot derselben', Der neue Teutsche Merkur (1802), 2, 248.
100. F. J. Gall and G. Spurzheim, Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur las possibilité de reconnoitre plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration de leurs têtes, 4 vols., Paris, 1810, i, pp. xvi, xvii. As early as 1802 it was said that Gall wanted to leave Vienna in order to publish. See 'Ueber Dr Gall's Vorlesung in Wien und das kaiserliche Verbot derselben', Der neue Teutsche Merkur (1802), 2, 248.
101. Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 53. Gall was later joined by his wife and her niece Rosalie Leisler.
102. Gall to R. Meier, 10 December 1805, translated and reprinted in 'Correspondence of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1846), 19, 36-42, 38.
103. P. Wegner, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen: Ein Beitrag zur Wirkung Franz Joseph Galls bei seiner Ankunft in Paris', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1983), 18, 69-99; idem, 'Le docteur Gall à Cythère', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1984), 19, 233-43; idem, 'Franz Joseph Gall in der zeitgenössischen französischen Karikatur', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1988), 23, 106-22.
104. P. Wegner, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen: Ein Beitrag zur Wirkung Franz Joseph Galls bei seiner Ankunft in Paris', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1983), 18, 69-99; idem, 'Le docteur Gall à Cythère', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1984), 19, 233-43; idem, 'Franz Joseph Gall in der zeitgenössischen französischen Karikatur', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1988), 23, 106-22.
105. P. Wegner, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen: Ein Beitrag zur Wirkung Franz Joseph Galls bei seiner Ankunft in Paris', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1983), 18, 69-99; idem, 'Le docteur Gall à Cythère', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1984), 19, 233-43; idem, 'Franz Joseph Gall in der zeitgenössischen französischen Karikatur', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1988), 23, 106-22.
106. Wegner, op. cit. (33).
107. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
108. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
109. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
110. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
111. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
112. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
113. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in Holland Kort na 1800', Gewina: Tijdschrift voor de Geschiedenis der Geneeskunde Natuurwetenschappen Wiskunde en Technick (1997), 3, 113-28; M. Conradi, 'Franz Joseph Gall in Nederland', De Psycholoog, July/August 1995, 320-3; J. Steendijk-Kuypers, 'Het succes van een dwaling. De hersen-schedeleer van Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) en de echo van de frenologie in Nederland', Ned Tijdschrift Geneeskunde (1996), 140, 2560-4; and anon., Verhandeling over de onzekerheid der Physiognomie of Gelaatkunde, uit de rede en onverinding aangetoond en bij gelegenheid der Herssenschedelleer van Doctor Gall, ter overweging aangeboden, uit het Duitsch vertaald, Amsterdam, 1806.
114. On Gall in Denmark see C. Bjoern, Historike Efterretinger om Dr Gall og hares Organlaehre, Odense, 1810; E. Snorrason, 'The Danish physician Carl Otto (1795-1879) and phrenology', in Wien und die Weltmedizin (ed. E. Lesky), Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1974, 146-58; V. Christensen, 'Dr Galls Ophold i Kubenhavn. 1805', Historiske Meddelelser om København (1921), 8, 217-25; and Tidsskrift for Phrenologien (1827), 1, 353-69. On Gall in the Netherlands see T. van Heiningen, 'De Receptie van de Hersen-schedelleer van Franz Joseph Gall in
115. Photographs of the medals may be found in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 56.
116. Cooter, op. cit. (4) provides an appendix of 212 public lecturers on phrenology in Britain to c. 1860.
117. There has been very little research on phrenology (as opposed to Gall) in Germany. Important overviews are M. Blankenburg, 'Seelengespenster: Zur deutschen Rezeption von Physiognomik und Phrenologie im 19. Jahrhundert: Versuch einer historischen Sondierung', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 211-38; J. F. V. Deneke, 'Die Phrenologie als publizistisches Ereignis: Galls Schädellehre in der Tagespublizistik des 19. Jahrhunderts', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1985), 20, 83-108; and G. Kunz, 'Gustav von Struve und die Phrenologie in Deutschland', Mainz University Ph.D. dissertation, 1994.
118. There has been very little research on phrenology (as opposed to Gall) in Germany. Important overviews are M. Blankenburg, 'Seelengespenster: Zur deutschen Rezeption von Physiognomik und Phrenologie im 19. Jahrhundert: Versuch einer historischen Sondierung', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 211-38; J. F. V. Deneke, 'Die Phrenologie als publizistisches Ereignis: Galls Schädellehre in der Tagespublizistik des 19. Jahrhunderts', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1985), 20, 83-108; and G. Kunz, 'Gustav von Struve und die Phrenologie in Deutschland', Mainz University Ph.D. dissertation, 1994.
119. There has been very little research on phrenology (as opposed to Gall) in Germany. Important overviews are M. Blankenburg, 'Seelengespenster: Zur deutschen Rezeption von Physiognomik und Phrenologie im 19. Jahrhundert: Versuch einer historischen Sondierung', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 211-38; J. F. V. Deneke, 'Die Phrenologie als publizistisches Ereignis: Galls Schädellehre in der Tagespublizistik des 19. Jahrhunderts', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1985), 20, 83-108; and G. Kunz, 'Gustav von Struve und die Phrenologie in Deutschland', Mainz University Ph.D. dissertation, 1994.
120. Soemmerring kept a record in his diary of the subject of each of Gall's lectures in Munich. These extracts from Soemmerring's diary are reproduced in G. Mann, 'Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) und Samuel Thomas Soemmerring; Kranioskopie und Gehirnforschung zur Goethezeit', in Samuel Thomas Soemmerring und die Gelehrten der Goethezeit (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1983, 149-89.
121. Thanks to Gall's tour a death mask was made of Friedrich Schiller in May 1805 by Johann Christian Ludwig Klauer and the only life mask of Goethe was taken in 1807 by Karl Gottlieb Weißer.
122. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
123. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
124. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
125. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
126. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
127. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
128. On the French reception of Gall and the subsequent history of his system there see P. Wegner, 'Das Ringen um Anerkennung: Drei Briefe Galls an Cuvier', Medizinhistorisches Journal (1990), 25, 40-89; idem, 'Materialismus in der Kranioskopie? Die Berichterstattung über Franz Joseph Gall in der französischen regierungsamtlichen Zeitung "Gazette nationale ou le monteur universel"', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 159-74; see also Martin Staum, 'Physiognomy and phrenology at the Paris Athénée', History of Ideas (1995), 56, 443-62; G. Lanteri-Laura, Histoire de la phrénologie: L'Homme et son cerveau selon F. J. Gall, Paris, 1970, 1993; A. McLaren, 'A prehistory of the social sciences: phrenology in France', Comparative Studies in Society and History (1981), 23, 3-22; E. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850, Cambridge, 1994, 105-12, also 182-8; and M. Renneville, La Langage des crânes: Une Histoire de phrénolgie, Paris, 2000.
129. Temkin, op. cit. (23); Williams, op. cit. (60).
130. Temkin, op. cit. (23); Williams, op. cit. (60).
131. Gall to Streicher, 20 January 1809, in Neuburger, op. cit. (24).
132. H. Schott (ed.), Franz Anton Mesmer and die Geschichte des Mesmerismus, Wiesbaden, 1985; R. Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, Cambridge, MA, 1968.
133. H. Schott (ed.), Franz Anton Mesmer and die Geschichte des Mesmerismus, Wiesbaden, 1985; R. Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, Cambridge, MA, 1968.
134. Gall to Streicher, 16 December 1807, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 23. On the sensation caused by Gall's arrival see Wegner, op. cit. (60), 159-74; idem, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen', op. cit. (52).
135. Gall to Streicher, 16 December 1807, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 23. On the sensation caused by Gall's arrival see Wegner, op. cit. (60), 159-74; idem, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen', op. cit. (52).
136. Gall to Streicher, 16 December 1807, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 23. On the sensation caused by Gall's arrival see Wegner, op. cit. (60), 159-74; idem, 'Phrenologische Schnupftabakdosen', op. cit. (52).
137. Spurzheim to Coupette, 28 May 1808, in H. Heintel, '"Meine Addreße: à M. Spurzheim chez Mr Gall à Paris": Briefe Johann Kaspar Spurzheims an Johann Paulin Palmatius Coupette', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 181. Also quoted in Heintel, op. cit. (5), 26; and Guido Groß, 'Die Phrenologie des Dr Johann Kaspar Spurzheim aus Longuich (1776-1832)', Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch (1977), 17, 35-52, 43.
138. Spurzheim to Coupette, 28 May 1808, in H. Heintel, '"Meine Addreße: à M. Spurzheim chez Mr Gall à Paris": Briefe Johann Kaspar Spurzheims an Johann Paulin Palmatius Coupette', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 181. Also quoted in Heintel, op. cit. (5), 26; and Guido Groß, 'Die Phrenologie des Dr Johann Kaspar Spurzheim aus Longuich (1776-1832)', Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch (1977), 17, 35-52, 43.
139. Spurzheim to Coupette, 28 May 1808, in H. Heintel, '"Meine Addreße: à M. Spurzheim chez Mr Gall à Paris": Briefe Johann Kaspar Spurzheims an Johann Paulin Palmatius Coupette', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 181. Also quoted in Heintel, op. cit. (5), 26; and Guido Groß, 'Die Phrenologie des Dr Johann Kaspar Spurzheim aus Longuich (1776-1832)', Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch (1977), 17, 35-52, 43.
140. Gall and Spurzheim, op. cit. (49). (The first two volumes only were written with Spurzheim.)
141. Heintel, op. cit. (65), 1988.
142. Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 62, n. 42. Gall explained, The sole reason the name Spurzheim is on my work [the Mémoire], and will be written on the large one is that he knows my doctrine completely, has already contributed much to its perfection, and will propagate it further after my death. I was never jealous of the praise of men, and the doctrine must persist because it is true and useful. Gall to Streicher, 7 March 1809, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 25.
143. Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 62, n. 42. Gall explained, The sole reason the name Spurzheim is on my work [the Mémoire], and will be written on the large one is that he knows my doctrine completely, has already contributed much to its perfection, and will propagate it further after my death. I was never jealous of the praise of men, and the doctrine must persist because it is true and useful. Gall to Streicher, 7 March 1809, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 25.
144. Blumenbach to [Johann Abraham] Albers, 10 September 1805, translated and reprinted in 'Correspondence of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1846), 19, 36-42, 41.
145. G. Mann, 'Franz Joseph Galls Natur- und Geisteslehre des Menschen und der Völkerschaften (Lehre von den "Nationalschädeln")', in Die Natur des Menschen: Probleme der Physischen Anthropologie und Kassenkunde (1750-1850) (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1990, 301-23.
146. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
147. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
148. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
149. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
150. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
151. Gall to Streicher, 15 October 1805, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 12-13. On Gall and Goethe see P. Möbius, 'Goethe und Gall', in idem, Ausgewählte Werke, 8 vols., Leipzig, 1903, iii, 211-60, where many of Goethe's references to Gall in letters and diaries are reproduced. See also the fruitful analysis in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17) Chapter 6, 'Theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit der Lehre Galls in der Goethezeit', 211-36; Lesky, op. cit. (29), 38-9.
152. I am grateful to Nicholas Jardine for bringing this to my attention. See E. von der Hellen, Goethes Anteil an Lavaters Physiognomischen Fragmenten, Frankfurt a. M., 1888; and L. Hirzel, 'Goethes Anteil an Lavaters Physiognomik', Zeitschrift für Deutsches Alterthum und Deutsche Literatur (1877), 21, 254-8.
153. I am grateful to Nicholas Jardine for bringing this to my attention. See E. von der Hellen, Goethes Anteil an Lavaters Physiognomischen Fragmenten, Frankfurt a. M., 1888; and L. Hirzel, 'Goethes Anteil an Lavaters Physiognomik', Zeitschrift für Deutsches Alterthum und Deutsche Literatur (1877), 21, 254-8.
154. Quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 14, 216.
155. K. Seehafer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe: Mein Leben ein einzig Abenteuer, Berlin, 2000.
156. M. Wenzel '"Daß der Liebhaber etwas Erfreuliches und Nützliches zu leisten im Stande ist". Goethe, Soemmerring, und das Os intermaxillare beim Menschen', Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte (1986), 9, 161-6; and Seehafer, op. cit. (74), 180-1. Goethe's Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen, Weimar, 1790 and his 'vertebral theory of the skull' were similar attempts to find the original structure on which bio-diversity was based.
157. M. Wenzel '"Daß der Liebhaber etwas Erfreuliches und Nützliches zu leisten im Stande ist". Goethe, Soemmerring, und das Os intermaxillare beim Menschen', Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte (1986), 9, 161-6; and Seehafer, op. cit. (74), 180-1. Goethe's Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen, Weimar, 1790 and his 'vertebral theory of the skull' were similar attempts to find the original structure on which bio-diversity was based.
158. M. Wenzel '"Daß der Liebhaber etwas Erfreuliches und Nützliches zu leisten im Stande ist". Goethe, Soemmerring, und das Os intermaxillare beim Menschen', Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte (1986), 9, 161-6; and Seehafer, op. cit. (74), 180-1. Goethe's Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen, Weimar, 1790 and his 'vertebral theory of the skull' were similar attempts to find the original structure on which bio-diversity was based.
159. Gall to R. Meier, 1 June 1805, translated and reprinted in Robert Noel, 'Reliques and anecdotes of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1844), 17, 153-7, 153.
160. Gall to [Volkmar] Rheinhard, 10 December 1805, translated and reprinted in 'Correspondence of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1846), 19, 36-42, 39.
161. Important examinations of France and Britain are S. Schaffer, 'Natural philosophy and public spectacle in the eighteenth century', History of Science (1983), 21, 1-43; and I. Inkster, 'Culture, institutions and urbanity: the itinerant science lecturer in Sheffield 1790-1850', in Essays in the Economic and Social History of South Yorkshire (ed. S. Pollard and C. Holmes), Sheffield, 1976, 218-32. See also R. Porter, Health for Sale, London, 1989; and J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820, Cambridge, 1992.
162. Important examinations of France and Britain are S. Schaffer, 'Natural philosophy and public spectacle in the eighteenth century', History of Science (1983), 21, 1-43; and I. Inkster, 'Culture, institutions and urbanity: the itinerant science lecturer in Sheffield 1790-1850', in Essays in the Economic and Social History of South Yorkshire (ed. S. Pollard and C. Holmes), Sheffield, 1976, 218-32. See also R. Porter, Health for Sale, London, 1989; and J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820, Cambridge, 1992.
163. Important examinations of France and Britain are S. Schaffer, 'Natural philosophy and public spectacle in the eighteenth century', History of Science (1983), 21, 1-43; and I. Inkster, 'Culture, institutions and urbanity: the itinerant science lecturer in Sheffield 1790-1850', in Essays in the Economic and Social History of South Yorkshire (ed. S. Pollard and C. Holmes), Sheffield, 1976, 218-32. See also R. Porter, Health for Sale, London, 1989; and J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820, Cambridge, 1992.
164. Important examinations of France and Britain are S. Schaffer, 'Natural philosophy and public spectacle in the eighteenth century', History of Science (1983), 21, 1-43; and I. Inkster, 'Culture, institutions and urbanity: the itinerant science lecturer in Sheffield 1790-1850', in Essays in the Economic and Social History of South Yorkshire (ed. S. Pollard and C. Holmes), Sheffield, 1976, 218-32. See also R. Porter, Health for Sale, London, 1989; and J. Golinski, Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760-1820, Cambridge, 1992.
165. S. Oehler-Klein, 'Franz Joseph Gall, der Scharlatan - Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, der Wissenschaftler ? Neuroanatomische Methoden, Erkenntnisse und Konsequenzen im Vergleich', in Gehirn-Nerven-Seele: Anatomie und Physiologie im Umfeld S. Th. Soemmerrings (ed. G. Mann and F. Dumont), Stuttgart and New York, 1988, 93-132.
166. M. Ramsey, 'Irregulars: itinerants', in idem, Professional and Popular Medicine in France, 1770-1830: The Social World of Medical Practice, Cambridge, 1988, 129-75.
167. M. Ramsey, 'Irregulars: itinerants', in idem, Professional and Popular Medicine in France, 1770-1830: The Social World of Medical Practice, Cambridge, 1988, 129-75.
168. Gall's advertisement in the Frankfurter Frag- und Anzeige-Nachrichten, 3 June 1806, 46, is transcribed in Deneke, op. cit. (57), 89.
169. Gall's advertisement in the Frankfurter Frag- und Anzeige-Nachrichten, 3 June 1806, 46, is transcribed in Deneke, op. cit. (57), 89.
170. Ramsey, op. cit. (80), 133.
171. E. Maple, Magic, Medicine & Quackery, London, 1968, 132-3.
172. Maple, op. cit. (83), 133-4.
173. Maple, op. cit. (83), 134.
174. E. Mead, The Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century, New York, 1972.
175. R. Gervaso, Cagliostro: A Biography, London, 1974.
176. Gall to Streicher, 1 February 1806, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 304.
177. Heyne to Soemmerring, 1 August 1805, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 284. Also quoted in G. Mann, 'Franz Joseph Galls kranioskopische Reise durch Europa (1805-7). Fundierung und Rechtfertigung neuer Wissenschaft', Nachrichtenblatt der deutschen Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Medizin, Naturwissenschaft und Technik (1984), 34, 86-114, 100.
178. Heyne to Soemmerring, 1 August 1805, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 284. Also quoted in G. Mann, 'Franz Joseph Galls kranioskopische Reise durch Europa (1805-7). Fundierung und Rechtfertigung neuer Wissenschaft', Nachrichtenblatt der deutschen Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Medizin, Naturwissenschaft und Technik (1984), 34, 86-114, 100.
179. See A. Lingo, 'Empirics and charlatans in early modern France: the genesis of the classification of the "other" in medical practice', Journal of Social History (1986), 19, 583-603. On the institutionalization of science lecturing see J. Hays, 'The London lecturing empire, 1800-50', in Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture 1780-1850 (ed. I. Inkster and J. Morrell), London, 1983, 91-119.
180. See A. Lingo, 'Empirics and charlatans in early modern France: the genesis of the classification of the "other" in medical practice', Journal of Social History (1986), 19, 583-603. On the institutionalization of science lecturing see J. Hays, 'The London lecturing empire, 1800-50', in Metropolis and Province: Science in British Culture 1780-1850 (ed. I. Inkster and J. Morrell), London, 1983, 91-119.
181. Soemmerring wrote a critical essay on Gall, 'Meine Ansicht einiger Galischen Lehrsätze', Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1829, parts 6/7, 49-64, which he had published only after Gall's death.
182. Gall to Streicher, 14 March 1807, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 21.
183. See also J. Lentin, Specimen Inaugurale Medicum Sistens Momenta Quaedam Generaliora Circa Febris Gastricae Distinctionem et Medelam, [Göttingen, 1778].
184. Mann, op. cit. (89).
185. Ramsey, op. cit. (80), 132.
186. E. Pichler, Beethoven: Mythos und Wirklichkeit, Wien and München, 1994, 140.
187. Intelligenzblatt der Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, 10 August 1805, 96, 810.
188. F. Osiander, 'Ueber Dr Galls Vorlesungen in Göttingen', Neues Hannöverisches Magazin (1805), 18, 1352. Osiander may have had personal reasons for opposing Gall so publicly. See Osiander's collection of infant skulls in N. Lepp, M. Roth and K. Vogel (eds.) Der neue Mensch, Cantz, 1999.
189. F. Osiander, 'Ueber Dr Galls Vorlesungen in Göttingen', Neues Hannöverisches Magazin (1805), 18, 1352. Osiander may have had personal reasons for opposing Gall so publicly. See Osiander's collection of infant skulls in N. Lepp, M. Roth and K. Vogel (eds.) Der neue Mensch, Cantz, 1999.
190. C. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805, enlarged, 1806, quoted in F. Theile, 'Gall', Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste (ed. J. Ersch and J. Gruber), Leipzig, 1850, 400.
191. C. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805, enlarged, 1806, quoted in F. Theile, 'Gall', Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste (ed. J. Ersch and J. Gruber), Leipzig, 1850, 400.
192. K. Blöde, Dr F. J. Gall's Lehre über die Verrichtungen des Gehirns, nach dessen Dresden gehaltenen Vorlesungen in einer fasslichen Ordnung mit gewissenhafter Treue dargestellt. Mit einer dreyfachen Abbildung eines von Gall bezeichneten Schädels, Dresden, 1806, p. iii.
193. In Berlin, for example, the price for the lecture course was two Friedrichsdor, in the Netherlands twenty-one florins, in Weimar, Freiburg, and Stuttgart one louis d'or (about eighteen shillings), in Münster two louis d'or, and in Frankfurt it was two Carolin (about thirty shillings). However, Gall claimed that he would admit for free those of little means such as 'young medical men, students, preachers, schoolmasters, &c.' Gall to [Volkmar] Reinhard, 1 June 1805, translated and reprinted in Noel, 'Reliques and anecdotes of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1844), 17, 153-7, 153.
194. C. A. Vulpius to Nicolaus Meyer, 30 August 1805, quoted in Heintel, op. cit. (5), 14.
195. Heyne to Soemmerring, 1 August 1805, quoted in Mann, op. cit. (58), 164.
196. De Ster, 6 June 1806, 38, 1.
197. Cooter, op. cit. (4).
198. Henrik Steffens, Lebenserinnerungen aus dem Kreis der Romantik (ed. F. Gundelfinger), Jena, 1908, 271. Also quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 24-5.
199. Henrik Steffens, Lebenserinnerungen aus dem Kreis der Romantik (ed. F. Gundelfinger), Jena, 1908, 271. Also quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 24-5.
200. Jenaische allgemeine Literaturzeitung, Nr. 122, 10 October 1805, 1027.
201. Walter, etwas über Hn. Dr Gall's Hirnschädel-Lehre; Dem Berliner Publikum mitgetheilt, Berlin, 1805.
202. C. H. E. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805. This pamphlet was also translated into French by G. Barbeguiere in 1806 and into English by H. C. Robinson in 1807. The Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science reviewed these works and the controversy with Walter, 1806, 2, 354-66. Hufeland's remarks were of a moderately critical nature. The Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung reported a speech at the opening of a new academic assembly hall in July 1805, when Gall had been away from Berlin for two and a half months. '[A physician] opened the [hall] with a fitting speech ... and as his inaugural project, a defence of Gall's theory against the attack of [J. G.] Walter in Berlin', Intelligenzblatt der Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, (August 1805), 90, 754. See Gall's responses to Walter in Gall, 'Briefe Galls an Professor Dr Johann Gottlieb Walter nebst Antworten und Berichtungen', 1805.
203. C. H. E. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805. This pamphlet was also translated into French by G. Barbeguiere in 1806 and into English by H. C. Robinson in 1807. The Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science reviewed these works and the controversy with Walter, 1806, 2, 354-66. Hufeland's remarks were of a moderately critical nature. The Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung reported a speech at the opening of a new academic assembly hall in July 1805, when Gall had been away from Berlin for two and a half months. '[A physician] opened the [hall] with a fitting speech ... and as his inaugural project, a defence of Gall's theory against the attack of [J. G.] Walter in Berlin', Intelligenzblatt der Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, (August 1805), 90, 754. See Gall's responses to Walter in Gall, 'Briefe Galls an Professor Dr Johann Gottlieb Walter nebst Antworten und Berichtungen', 1805.
204. C. H. E. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805. This pamphlet was also translated into French by G. Barbeguiere in 1806 and into English by H. C. Robinson in 1807. The Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science reviewed these works and the controversy with Walter, 1806, 2, 354-66. Hufeland's remarks were of a moderately critical nature. The Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung reported a speech at the opening of a new academic assembly hall in July 1805, when Gall had been away from Berlin for two and a half months. '[A physician] opened the [hall] with a fitting speech ... and as his inaugural project, a defence of Gall's theory against the attack of [J. G.] Walter in Berlin', Intelligenzblatt der Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, (August 1805), 90, 754. See Gall's responses to Walter in Gall, 'Briefe Galls an Professor Dr Johann Gottlieb Walter nebst Antworten und Berichtungen', 1805.
205. C. H. E. Bischoff, Darstellung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädel-Lehre; nebst Bemerkungen über diese Lehre von Christoph Wilh. Hufeland, Berlin, 1805. This pamphlet was also translated into French by G. Barbeguiere in 1806 and into English by H. C. Robinson in 1807. The Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science reviewed these works and the controversy with Walter, 1806, 2, 354-66. Hufeland's remarks were of a moderately critical nature. The Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung reported a speech at the opening of a new academic assembly hall in July 1805, when Gall had been away from Berlin for two and a half months. '[A physician] opened the [hall] with a fitting speech ... and as his inaugural project, a defence of Gall's theory against the attack of [J. G.] Walter in Berlin', Intelligenzblatt der Jenaische Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, (August 1805), 90, 754. See Gall's responses to Walter in Gall, 'Briefe Galls an Professor Dr Johann Gottlieb Walter nebst Antworten und Berichtungen', 1805.
206. C. G. Kratzsch, Doktor Gall in Hamburg, Hamburg, 1806, 2. See also anon., Beleuchtung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädellehre durch Vernunft und Erfahrung geleitet von einem von aller Parteilichkeit freien Beobachter; für Aerzte und Nichtärzte, Berlin, 1805.
207. C. G. Kratzsch, Doktor Gall in Hamburg, Hamburg, 1806, 2. See also anon., Beleuchtung der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schädellehre durch Vernunft und Erfahrung geleitet von einem von aller Parteilichkeit freien Beobachter; für Aerzte und Nichtärzte, Berlin, 1805.
208. Shapin, op. cit. (3).
209. Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 64.
210. [A correspondent in Dresden,] 'An account of Dr Gall's system of craniology', Medical and Physical Journal (1806), 15, 201-13, 202.
211. L. M., [writing 20 May 1806] De Ster (6 June 1806), 38.
212. Quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 61; and Mann, op. cit. (58), 174.
213. Quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 61; and Mann, op. cit. (58), 174.
214. Gall to Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch, 23 September 1807, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 307. For a comparison of Gall and Soemmerring, see Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (79); Mann, op. cit. (58); and M. Hagner, 'The soul and the brain between anatomy and "Naturphilosophie" in the early 19th century', Medical History (1992), 26, 1-33.
215. Gall to Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch, 23 September 1807, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 307. For a comparison of Gall and Soemmerring, see Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (79); Mann, op. cit. (58); and M. Hagner, 'The soul and the brain between anatomy and "Naturphilosophie" in the early 19th century', Medical History (1992), 26, 1-33.
216. Gall to Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch, 23 September 1807, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 307. For a comparison of Gall and Soemmerring, see Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (79); Mann, op. cit. (58); and M. Hagner, 'The soul and the brain between anatomy and "Naturphilosophie" in the early 19th century', Medical History (1992), 26, 1-33.
217. Gall to Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch, 23 September 1807, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 307. For a comparison of Gall and Soemmerring, see Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (79); Mann, op. cit. (58); and M. Hagner, 'The soul and the brain between anatomy and "Naturphilosophie" in the early 19th century', Medical History (1992), 26, 1-33.
218. Ackerknecht and Vallois, op. cit. (8).
219. Lesky, op. cit. (12), 95.
220. On Naturphilosophie, see N. Jardine, 'Naturphilosophie and the kingdoms of nature', in Cultures of Natural History (ed. N. Jardine, S. Secord and E. Spary), Cambridge, 1996, 230-45; and A. Cunningham and N. Jardine, Romanticism and the Sciences, Cambridge, 1990.
221. On Naturphilosophie, see N. Jardine, 'Naturphilosophie and the kingdoms of nature', in Cultures of Natural History (ed. N. Jardine, S. Secord and E. Spary), Cambridge, 1996, 230-45; and A. Cunningham and N. Jardine, Romanticism and the Sciences, Cambridge, 1990.
222. F. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena and Leipzig, 1799; idem, System des Transcendentalen Idealismus, Tübingen, 1800. Schelling tried to push Gall away from the metaphysics of a human 'mind', since 'Hr. Dr Gall understands the structure of the brain better than the faculties which are inside.' Idem, 'Einiges über die Schädellehre', Morgenblatt (1807), 74, 542-3; reprinted in idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1859, vii, 542-3.
223. F. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena and Leipzig, 1799; idem, System des Transcendentalen Idealismus, Tübingen, 1800. Schelling tried to push Gall away from the metaphysics of a human 'mind', since 'Hr. Dr Gall understands the structure of the brain better than the faculties which are inside.' Idem, 'Einiges über die Schädellehre', Morgenblatt (1807), 74, 542-3; reprinted in idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1859, vii, 542-3.
224. F. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena and Leipzig, 1799; idem, System des Transcendentalen Idealismus, Tübingen, 1800. Schelling tried to push Gall away from the metaphysics of a human 'mind', since 'Hr. Dr Gall understands the structure of the brain better than the faculties which are inside.' Idem, 'Einiges über die Schädellehre', Morgenblatt (1807), 74, 542-3; reprinted in idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1859, vii, 542-3.
225. F. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena and Leipzig, 1799; idem, System des Transcendentalen Idealismus, Tübingen, 1800. Schelling tried to push Gall away from the metaphysics of a human 'mind', since 'Hr. Dr Gall understands the structure of the brain better than the faculties which are inside.' Idem, 'Einiges über die Schädellehre', Morgenblatt (1807), 74, 542-3; reprinted in idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1859, vii, 542-3.
226. F. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena and Leipzig, 1799; idem, System des Transcendentalen Idealismus, Tübingen, 1800. Schelling tried to push Gall away from the metaphysics of a human 'mind', since 'Hr. Dr Gall understands the structure of the brain better than the faculties which are inside.' Idem, 'Einiges über die Schädellehre', Morgenblatt (1807), 74, 542-3; reprinted in idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart, 1859, vii, 542-3.
227. These generalizations are derived largely from the excellent account in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 13-15. See also H. Snelders, 'Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the inorganic natural sciences 1797-1840', Studies in Romanticism (1970), 9, 193-215.
228. These generalizations are derived largely from the excellent account in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 13-15. See also H. Snelders, 'Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the inorganic natural sciences 1797-1840', Studies in Romanticism (1970), 9, 193-215.
229. Gall to Nannette Streicher, 21 September 1827, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 53.
230. J. Ackermann, Die Gall'sche Hirn-, Schedel- und Organenlehre vom Gesichtspunkte der Erfahrung aus beurtheilt und wiederlegt, von J. F. Ackermann, Heidelberg, 1806, 191-2.
231. J. Ackermann, op. cit. (123), 85-6.
232. Hagner, op. cit. (4), 126.
233. Ackermann, op. cit. (123), 3-4. Other writings by Ackermann to this date included Über die Kretinen, eine besondere Menschenabart in den Alpen, Gotha, 1790; Der Scheintod und das Rettungsverfahren, Frankfurt, a. M., 1804.
234. Ackermann, op. cit. (123), 3-4. Other writings by Ackermann to this date included Über die Kretinen, eine besondere Menschenabart in den Alpen, Gotha, 1790; Der Scheintod und das Rettungsverfahren, Frankfurt, a. M., 1804.
235. Ackermann, op. cit. (123), 3-4. Other writings by Ackermann to this date included Über die Kretinen, eine besondere Menschenabart in den Alpen, Gotha, 1790; Der Scheintod und das Rettungsverfahren, Frankfurt, a. M., 1804.
236. Quoted in Oehler-Klein, op. cit. (17), 66. Oehler-Klein has provided a detailed analysis of Gall's interaction with the Brentano family.
237. [F. J. Gall] Beantwortung der Ackermann'schen Beurtheilung und Wiederlegung der Gall'schen Hirn-Schedel- und Organenlehre, vom Gesichtspuncte der Erfahrung aus. Von einigen Schülern des Dr Gall und von ihm selbst berichtigt, Halle, 1806.
238. Gall to Bertuch, 19 May 1806, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 297.
239. Gall to Bertuch, 19 May 1806, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 304.
240. Brentano to Arnim, 12 February 1806, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 272.
241. Gall to Bertuch, Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 305.
242. Clarke and Jacyna, op. cit. (2).
243. Gall to R. Meier, 3 March 1806, translated and reprinted in 'Correspondence of Dr Gall', Phrenological Journal (1846), 19, 36-42, 40.
244. Young, op. cit. (4).
245. On the latter see Henrik Steffens, Drei Vorlesungen über Hn. D. Gall's Organlehre, Halle, 1805; and idem, Was ich erlebte, 10 vols., Breslau, 1842, vi.
246. On the latter see Henrik Steffens, Drei Vorlesungen über Hn. D. Gall's Organlehre, Halle, 1805; and idem, Was ich erlebte, 10 vols., Breslau, 1842, vi.
247. Gall to Streicher, 12 March 1806, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 17.
248. Gall to Streicher, 12 March 1806, in Neuburger, op. cit. (10), 17.
249. Gall to Bertuch, 4 February 1805, in Ebstein, op. cit. (39), 290.
250. 'Ueber D. Galls Vorlesungen in Göttingen', 30 October 1805, 1027-30, 1028.