Oral candidiasis in hematopoietic cell transplantation patients: An outcome-based analysis

Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics

Volumn 96, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 154-163

  Epstein, Joel B ^a,b,g   Hancock, Pamela J ^c,d   Nantel, Stephen ^e,f  

^a VANCOUVER GENERAL HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^c BRITISH COLUMBIA CANCER AGENCY   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^f Leukemia Bone Marrow Transplant Program of British Columbia   (Canada)

^g Chicago Cancer Center   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CEPHALOSPORIN; CHLORHEXIDINE; FLUCONAZOLE; NYSTATIN; TOBRAMYCIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ADULT; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; ARTICLE; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANDIDA; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISEASE SEVERITY; FEMALE; FUNGUS CULTURE; FUNGUS IDENTIFICATION; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; LEUKEMIA; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MORTALITY; MOUTH EXAMINATION; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; STOMATITIS; THRUSH;

EID: 0042591325     PISSN: 10792104     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1079-2104(03)00296-8     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Eisen D., Essell J., Broun E.R. Oral cavity complications of bone marrow transplantation. Semin Cutan Med Surg. 16:1997;265-272.
2. Kruger W., Sobottka I., Stockschlader M., Ross K., Hoffknecht M., Russmann M., et al. Fatal outcome of disseminated candidosis after allogeneic bone marrow transplant under treatment with liposomal and conventional amphotericin B. A report of four cases with determination of the Mic values. Scand J Infect Dis. 28:1996;313-316.
3. Kruger W., Rossman B., Kroger N., Salomon C., Epkof N., Elsner H.A., et al. Early infections in patients undergoing bone marrow or blood stem cell transplantation - A 7-year single center investigation of 409 cases. Bone Marrow Transplant. 23:1999;589-597.
4. Berkowitz R.J., Hughes C., Rudnick M., Gordon E.M., Strandfjord S., Cheung H.K., et al. Oropharyngeal Candida prophylaxis in pediatric bone marrow transplant patients. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 7:1985;82-86.
5. Bodey G.P., Rodriguez V., Chang H.Y., Narbon I. Fever and infection in leukemic patients a study of 494 consecutive patients . Cancer. 41:1978;1610-1622.
6. Clift R.A. Candidiasis in the transplant patient. Am J Med. 77:1984;34-38.
7. DeGregorio M.W., Lee W.M.F., Linker C.A., Jacob R.A., Reis C.A. Fungal infections in patients with acute leukemia. Am J Med. 73:1982;2780-2784.
8. DeGregorio M.W., Lee W.M., Reis C.A. Candida infections in patients with acute leukemia ineffectiveness of nystatin prophylaxis and relationship between oropharyngeal and systemic candidiasis . Cancer. 50:1982;2780-2784.
9. Dreizen S., McCredie K.B., Dickie K.A., Zander A.R., Peters L.J. Oral complications of bone marrow transplantation in adults with acute leukemia. Postgrad Med. 66:1979;187-194.
10. MacDonald G.B., Sharma P., Hackman R.C., Meyers J.D., Thomas E.D. Infectious esophagitis in immunosuppressed patients after marrow transplantation. Gastroenterology. 88:1985;1111-1117.
11. Meunier-Carpentier F., Kiehn T.E., Armstrong D. Fungemia in the immunocompromised host. Changing patterns, antigenemia, high mortality. Am J Med. 71:1981;363-370.
12. Meunier-Carpentier F. Treatment of mycoses in cancer patients. Am J Med. 74:1983;74-79.
13. Meyers J.D. Fungal infections in bone marrow transplant patients. Semin Oncol. 17:1990;10-13.
14. Pizzo P.A. Infectious complications in the child with cancer. II. Management of specific infectious organisms. J Pediatr. 98:1981;513-523.
15. Pizzo P.A., Robichaud K.J., Gill F.A., Witebsky F.G. Empiric antibiotic and antifungal therapy for cancer patients with prolonged fever and granulocytopenia. Am J Med. 72:1982;101-111.
16. Schwartz R.S., Mackintosh F.R., Halpern J., Schrier S.L., Greenberg P.L., et al. Multivariate analysis of factors associated with invasive fungal disease during remission induction therapy for acute myelogenous leukemia. Cancer. 53:1984;411-419.
17. Singer C., Kaplan M.H., Armstrong D. Bacteremia and fungemia complicating neoplastic disease a study of 364 cases . Am J Med. 62:1977;731-742.
18. Wade J.C., Schimpff S.C., Hargadon M.T., Fortner C.L., Young V.M., Wiernik P.H. A comparison of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole plus nystatin with gentamicin plus nystatin in the prevention of infections in acute leukemia. N Engl J Med. 304:1981;1057-1062.
19. Winston D.J., Gale R.P., Meyer D.V., Young L.S. Infectious complications of human bone marrow transplantation. Medicine. 58:1979;1-31.
20. Young L.S. The outlook for antifungal prophylaxis in the compromised host. J Antimicrob Chemother. 9:1982;338-340.
21. Verfaillie C., Weisdorf D., Haake R., Hostetter M., Ramsey N.K., McGlave P. Candida infections in bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 8:1991;177-184.
22. Martino P., Girmenia C., Venditti M., Micozzi A., Santilli S., Burgio V.L. Candida colonization and systemic infection in neutropenic patients. A retrospective study. Cancer. 64:1989;2030-2034.
23. Martino P., Girmenia C., Micozzi A., De Bernardis F., Boccanera M., Cassone A. Prospective study ofCandida colonization, use of empiric amphotericin B and development of invasive mycosis in neutropenic patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 13:1994;797-804.
24. Odds F.C., Kibbler C.C., Walker E., Bharma A., Prentice H.G., Noone P. Carriage of Candida species and Calbicans biotypes in patients undergoing chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation for hematological disease. J Clin Pathol. 42:1989;1259-1266.
25. Besnard M., Hartmann O., Valteau-Couanet D., Roibert M.C., Brugieres L., Lemerle J. Systemic Candida infection in pediatric bone marrow autotransplantation clinical signs, outcome and prognosis . Bone Marrow Transplant. 11:1993;465-470.
26. Klingspor L., Stintzing G., Fasth A., Tollemar J. Deep Candida infection in children receiving allogeneic bone marrow transplants incidence, risk factors and diagnosis . Bone Marrow Transplant. 17:1996;1043-1049.
27. Anttila V.J., Elonen E., Nordling S., Sivonen A., Ruutu T., Ruutu P. Hepatosplenic candidiasis in patients with acute leukemia incidence and prognostic implications . Clin Infect Dis. 24:1997;375-380.
28. Bjerke J.W., Meyers J.D., Bowden R.A. Hepatosplenic candidiasis - a contraindication to marrow transplantation? Blood. 84:1994;2811-2814.
29. Hagensee M.E., Bauwens J.E., Kjos B., Bowden R.A. Brain abscess following marrow transplantation experience at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1984-1992 . Clin Infect Dis. 19:1994;402-408.
30. Kauffman C.A., Bradley S.F., Ross S.C., Weber D.R. Hepatosplenic candidiasis successful treatment with fluconazole . Am J Med. 91:1991;137-141.
31. Schmidt U., Pfaffenbach B., Quabeck K., Donhuijsen K. Fungal infections after bone marrow transplantation - an autopsy study. Mycoses. 1:1991;33-35.
32. Thaler M., Pastakia B., Shawler T.H., O'Leary T., Pizzo P.A. Hepatic candidiasis in cancer patients the evolving picture of the syndrome . Ann Intern Med. 108:1988;88-100.
33. Verdeguer A., Fernandez J.M., Esquembre C., Ferris J., Ruis J.G., Castel V. Hepatosplenic candidiasis in children with acute leukemia. Cancer. 65:1990;874-877.
34. Calderone R.A., Lehrer N., Segal E. Adherence of Candida albicans to buccal and vaginal epithelial cells ultrastructural observations . Can J Microbiol. 30:1984;1001-1006.
35. Hamilton E., Franks L.M. Cell proliferation and ageing in mouse colon. II. Late effects of repeated x-irradiation in young and old mice. Eur J Cancer. 16:1980;663-669.
36. Piken E., Dwyer R., Zablen M.A. Gastric candidiasis. JAMA. 240:1978;2181-2182.
37. Warnock D.W. Fungal complications of transplantation: diagnosis, treatment and prevention. J Antimicrob Chemother. 36:(Suppl B):1995;73-90.
38. Yuhas J.M., Huang D., Storer J.B. Residual radiation injury hematopoietic and gastrointestinal involvement in relation to age . Radiat Res. 38:1969;501-512.
39. Dreizen S., Bodey G.P., Valdivieso M. Chemotherapy-associated oral infections in adults with solid tumors. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 55:1983;113-120.
40. Dreizen S., Bodey G.P., McCredie K.B., Keating M.J. Orofacial aspergillosis in acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 59:1985;499-504.
41. Barrett A.P. A long-term prospective clinical study of oral complications during conventional chemotherapy for acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 63:1987;313-316.
42. Pfaller M., Cabezudo I., Koontz F., et al. Predictive value of surveillance cultures for system infection due to Candida species. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 6:1987;628-633.
43. Samonis G., Skordilis P., Maraki S., Datseris G. Oropharyngeal candidiasis as a marker for esophageal candidiasis in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis. 27:1998;283-286.
44. Sanford G.R., Merz W.G., Wingard J.R., Charache, Saral R. The value of fungal surveillance cultures as predictors of systemic fungal infections. J Infect Dis. 142:1980;503-509.
45. Wingard J.R., Merz W.G., Saral R. Candida tropicalis a major pathogen in immunocompromised patients . Ann Intern Med. 91:1979;539-543.
46. Wingard J.R. Fungal infections after bone marrow transplant. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 5:1999;55-68.
47. Epstein J.B., Ransier A., Lunn R., Chin E., Jacobson J.J., Reece D. Prophylaxis of candidiasis in patients with leukemia and bone marrow transplants. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 81:1996;291-296.
48. Goodman J.L., Winston D.J., Greenfield R.A., Chandrasekar P.H., Fox B., Kaizer H., et al. A controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent fungal infections in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med. 326:1992;845-851.
49. Tollemar J., Ringden O., Bostrom L., Nilsson B., Sundberg B. Variables predicting deep fungal infections in bone marrow transplant patients. Bone Marrow Transplant. 4:1989;635-640.
50. van Burik J.H., Leisenring W., Myerson D., Hackman R.C., Shulman H.M., Sale G.E., et al. The effect of prophylactic fluconazole on the clinical spectrum of fungal diseases in bone marrow transplant recipients with special attention to hepatic candidiasis. Medicine. 77:1998;246-254.
51. Denning D.S., Donnelly J.P., Hellreigel K.P., Ito J., Martino J.O., van't Wout J.W. Antifungal prophylaxis during neutropenia or allogeneic bone marrow transplant what is the state of the art? Chemotherapy. 38:(Suppl):1992;43-93.
52. Edwards J.E. Jr, Montgomerie J.Z., Ishida K., Morrison J.O., Guze L.B. Experimental hematogenous endophthalmitis due to Candida species variation in ocular pathogenicity . J Infect Dis. 135:1977;294-297.
53. Hasenclever H.F., Mitchell W.O. Pathogenicity of Calbicans and C. tropicalis. Sabouraudia. 1:1961;16-21.
54. Hurley R., Winner H.I. The pathogenicity of Candida tropicalis. J Pathol Bacteriol. 84:1962;33-38.
55. Louria D.B., Buse M., Brayton R.G., Finkel G. The pathogenesis of Candida tropicalis infections in mice. Sabouraudia 1966. 5:1966;14-25.
56. Epstein J.B., Gangbar S.J. Oral mucosal lesions in patients undergoing treatment for leukemia. J Oral Med. 43:1987;132-137.
57. Johnson W.G., Pierce A.K., Sanford J.P. Changing pharyngeal bacterial flora of hospitalized patients emergence of gram-negative bacilli . N Engl J Med. 281:1969;1137-1140.
58. Overholser C.D., Peterson D.E., Williams L.T., Schimpff S.C. Periodontal infection in patients with acute nonlymphocytic leukemia prevalence of acute exacerbations . Arch Intern Med. 142:1982;551-554.
59. Maksymiuk A.W., Thongprasert S., Hopfer R., Luna M., Fainstein V., Bodey G.P. Systemic candidiasis in cancer patients. Am J Med. 77:1984;20-27.
60. Winston D.J., Chandrasekar P.H., Lazarus H.M., Goodman J.L., Silber J.L., Horowitz H., et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis of fungal infections in patients with acute leukemia. Results of a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter trial. Ann Intern Med. 118:1993;594-603.
61. Bergmann O.J. Oral infections and septicemia in immunocompromised patients with hematological malignancies. J Clin Microbiol. 26:1988;2105-2109.
62. Greenberg M.S., Cohen S.G., McKitrick J.C., Cassileth P.A. The oral flora as a source of septicemia in patients with acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 53:1982;32-36.
63. Lockhart P.B., Sonis S.T. Alterations in the oral mucosa caused by chemotherapeutic agents. A histologic study. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 7:1981;1019-1025.
64. Main B.E., Calman K.C., Ferguson M.M., Kaye S.B., MacFarlane T.W., Mairs R.T., et al. The effect of cytotoxic therapy on saliva and oral flora. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 58:1984;545-548.
65. Newman K.A., Schimpff S.C., Young V.M., Wiernik P.H. Lessons learned from surveillance cultures in patients with acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. Usefulness for epidemiologic, preventive and therapeutic research. Am J Med. 70:1981;423-431.
66. Schimpff S., Young V., Greene W., Vermeulen G.D., Moody M.R., Wiernik P.H. Origin of infection in acute nonlymphocytic leukemia significance of hospital acquisition of potential pathogens . Ann Intern Med. 77:1972;707-714.
67. Schimpff S.C. Surveillance cultures. J Infect Dis. 144:1981;81-84.
68. Wingard J.R., Niehaus C.S., Peterson C.E., Jones R.J., Piantadosi S., Levin L.S., et al. Oral mucositis after bone marrow transplantation. A marker of treatment toxicity and predictor of hepatic veno-occlusive disease. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 72:1991;419-424.
69. Wingard J.R. Oral complications of cancer therapies. Infectious and noninfectious systemic consequences. NCI Monogr. 9:1990;21-26.
70. Donnelly J.P., Muus P., Horrevorts A.M., Sauerwein R.W., De Pauw B.E. Failure of clindamycin to influence the course of severe oromucositis associated with streptococcal bacteraemia in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients. Scand J Infect Dis. 25:1993;43-50.
71. Ferretti G.A., Raybould T.P., Brown A.T., Macdonald J.S., Greenwood M., Maruyama Y., et al. Chlorhexidine prophylaxis for chemotherapy- and radiotherapy-induced stomatitis a randomized double-blind trial . Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 69:1990;331-338.
72. Mahsson T., Heimdahl A., Dahllof G., Nilsson B., Lonnqvist B., Ringden O. Variables predicting oral mucosal lesions in allogeneic bone marrow recipients. Head Neck. 13:1991;224-229.
73. Aisner J., Wiernik P.H., Schimpff S.C. Treatment of invasive aspergillosis relation of early diagnosis and treatment to response . Ann Intern Med. 86:1977;539-543.
74. Slavin M.A., Osborne B., Adams R., Levenstein M.J., Schoch H.G., Feldman A.R., et al. Efficacy and safety of fluconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections after marrow transplantation - a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. J Infect Dis. 171:1995;1545-1552.
75. Barrett A.P. Evaluation of nystatin in prevention and elimination of oropharyngeal Candida in immunosuppressed patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 58:1984;148-151.
76. Epstein J.B., Vickars L., Spinelli J., Reece D. Efficacy of chlorhexidine and nystatin rinses in prevention of oral complications in leukemia and bone marrow transplantation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 73:1992;682-689.
77. Hann I.M., Prentice H.G., Corringham R., Blacklock H.A., Keaney M., Shannon M., et al. Ketoconazole versus nystatin plus amphotericin B for fungal prophylaxis in severely immunocompromised patients. Lancet. 1:1982;826-829.
78. Pons V., Greenspan D., Lozada-Nur F., McPhail L., Gallant J.E., Atunkel A., Johnson O.C., et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with AIDS randomized comparison of fluconazole versus nystatin oral suspensions . Clin Infect Dis. 24:1997;1204-1207.
79. Anaissie E.J., Darouiche R.O., Abi-Said D., Uzun O., Mera J., Gentry L.O., et al. Management of invasive candidal infections results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter study of fluconazole versus amphotericin B and review of the literature . Clin Infect Dis. 23:1996;964-972.
80. Butler W.T., Bennett J.E., Alling D.W. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B early and late effects in 81 patients . Ann Intern Med. 61:1964;175-187.
81. Gallis H.A., Drew R.H., Pickard W.W. Amphotericin B 30 years of clinical experience . Rev Infect Dis. 12:1990;308-329.
82. Graybill J.R., Craven P.C. Antifungal agents used in systemic mycoses. Activity and therapeutic use. Drugs. 25:1983;41-62.
83. Patterson T.F., Andriole V.T. The role of liposomal amphotericin B in the treatment of systemic fungal infections. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 25:(Suppl 2):1989;S63-68.
84. Yang D.J., Rankin G.O. Nephrotoxicity of antifungal agents. Adverse Drug React Acute Poisoning Rev. 4:1985;37-47.
85. Anaissie EJ, White M, Uzun O, Singer C, Godey GP, Matzke D, et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex (SBLC) versus amphotericin B (AMB) for treatment of hematogenous and invasive candidiasis: a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. [proceedings of the 35th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy]. 1995; p. 330.
86. Wade J.C. Treatment of fungal and other opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. Leukemia. 11:(Suppl 4):1997;S38-39.
87. Kontoyiannis D.P., Bodey G.P., Mantzoros C.S. Fluconazole vs. amphotericin B for the management of candidaemia in adults a meta-analysis . Mycoses. 44:2001;125-135.
88. Baily G.G., Perry F.M., Denning D.W., Mandal B.K. Fluconazole-resistant candidosis in an HIV cohort. AIDS. 8:1994;787-792.
89. Redding S., Smith J., Farinacci G., Rinaldi M., Fothergill A., Rhine-Chalberg J., et al. Resistance of Candida albicans to fluconazole during treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in a patient with AIDS documentation by in vitro susceptibility testing and DNA subtype analysis . Clin Infect Dis. 18:1994;240-242.
90. Venkateswarlu K., Denning D.W., Manning N.J., Kelly S.L. Resistance to fluconazole in Candida albicans from AIDS patients correlated with reduced intracellular accumulation of drug. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 131:1995;337-341.
91. Marr K.A., Bowden R.A., van Burik J.A., White T.C. Development of a fluconazole resistant Candida albicans in a patient undergoing marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 25:1998;908-910.
92. Nolte F.S., Parkinson T., Falconer D.J., Dix S., Williams J., Gilmore C., et al. Isolation and characterization of fluconazole- and amphotericin B-resistant Candida albicans from blood of two patients with leukemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 41:1997;196-199.
93. Kauffman C.A. Systemic antifungal agents. What is in the pipeline? Drugs R D. 1:1999;153-159.
94. Sheehan D.J., Hitchcock C.A., Sibley C.M. Current and emerging azole antifungal agents. Clin Microbiol Rev. 12:1999;40-79.
95. Ruhnke M., Schmidt-Westhausen A., Trautmann M. In vitro activities of voriconazole (UK-109,496) against fluconazole-susceptible and -resistant Candida albicans isolates from oral cavities of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 41:1997;575-577.
96. Troke PF, Brammer KW, Hitchcock CA. UK-109,496, a novel wide-spectrum triazole derivative for the treatment of fungal infections: activity in systemic candidiasis models and early clinical efficacy in oropharyngeal candidiasis[abstract no. F73] Intersciences Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1995 Sep 17-20; San Francisco. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1995.
97. Chavez M., Bernal S., Valverde A., Gutierrez M.J., Quindos G., Mazuelos E.M. In-vitro activity of voriconazole (UK-109,496), LY303366 and other antifungal agents against oral Candida spp. isolates from HIV-infected patients. J Antimicrobiol Chemother. 44:1999;697-700.
98. Schwartz S., Milatovic D., Thiel E. Successful treatment of cerebral aspergillosis with a novel triazole (voriconazole) in a patient with acute leukaemia. Br J Haematol. 97:1997;663-665.
99. Barry A.L., Brown S.D. In vitro studies of two triazole antifungal agents (voriconazole. [UK-109,496] and fluconazole) against Candida species Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 40:1996;1948-1949.
100. Hegener P., Troke P.F., Fatkenheuer G., Diehl V., Ruhnke M. Treatment of fluconazole-resistant candidiasis with voriconazole in patients with AIDS. AIDS. 12:1998;2227-2228.
101. Dodd M.J., Larson P.J., Dibble S.L., Miaskowski C., Greenspan D., MacPhail L., et al. Randomized clinical trial of chlorhexidine versus placebo for prevention of oral mucositis in patients receiving chemotherapy. Oncol Nurs Forum. 23:1996;921-927.
102. Ferretti G.A., Largent B.M., Ash R.C., Kaplan A., Lillich T.T. Chlorhexidine for prophylaxis against oral infections and associated complications in patients receiving bone marrow transplants. J Am Dent Assoc. 114:1987;461-467.
103. Ferretti G.A., Ash R.C., Brown A.T., Parr M.D., Rommond E.H., Lillich T.T. Control of oral mucositis and candidiasis in marrow transplantation a prospective double blind trial of chlorhexidine digluconate oral rinse . Bone Marrow Transplant. 3:1988;483-493.
104. Wahlin Y.B. Effects of chlorhexidine mouthrinse on the oral health in patients with acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 68:1989;279-287.
105. Brown A.T., Largent B.A., Ferretti G.A., Lillich T.T. Chemical control of plaque-dependent oral diseases: the use of chlorhexidine. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 7:1987;719-724.
106. Emilson C.G. Susceptibility of various microorganisms to chlorhexidine. Scand J Dent Res. 85:1977;255-265.
107. Giuliana G., Pizzo G., Milici M.E., Musotto G.C., Giangreco R. In vitro antifungal properties of mouthrinses containing antimicrobial agents. J Periodontol. 68:1997;729-733.
108. Hiom S.J., Furr J.R., Russell A.D., Dickinson J.R. Effects of chlorhexidine diacetate on Candida albicans, C. glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Appl Bacteriol. 72:1992;335-340.
109. Pizzo G., Giuliana G. Antifungal activity of chlorhexidine-containing mouthrinses. An in vitro study. Minerva Stomatol. 47:1998;665-671.
110. Thurmond J.M., Brown A.T., Sims R.E., Ferretti G.A., Raybould T.P., Lillich T.T., et al. . Oral Candida albicans in bone marrow transplant patients given chlorhexidine rinses occurrence and susceptibilities to the agent . Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 72:1991;291-295.
111. Cartee L., Petros W.P., Rosner G.L., Gilbert C., Moore S., Affronti M.L., et al. GM-CSF mouthwash for prevention of chemotherapy induced mucositis a randomized, double-blind, dose ranging study . Cytokine. 7:1995;471-477.
112. Wingard J.R. Growth factors and other immunomodulators. Bowden R., Ljungman P., Paya C. Transplant infections. 1997;367 Lippincott Raven, Philadelphia.
113. Karthaus M., Rosenthal C., Huebner G., Paul H., Elser C., Hertenstein B., et al. Effect of topical oral G-CSF on oral mucositis a randomized placebo-controlled trial . Bone Marrow Transplant. 22:1998;781-785.