Gersonides on providence: A Jewish chapter in the history of the general will

Journal of the History of Ideas

Volumn 62, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 37-57

  Nadler, Steven ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

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EID: 0042405052     PISSN: 00225037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3654174     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Du Contrat Social, Book I, chapter 7.
2. Patrick Riley, The General Will Before Rousseau: The Transformation of the Divine into the Civic (Princeton, 1986), 4-5.
3. This is not to say that Gersonides represents the only candidate for this kind of study. For comparisons of Gersonides, Maimonides, and St. Thomas on providence and the problem of evil, see David Burrell, "Maimonides, Aquinas and Gersonides on Providence and Evil," Religious Studies, 20 (1972), 335-51; and Idit Dobbs-Weinstein, "The Existential Dimension of Providence in the Thought of Gersonides," in G. Dahan (ed.), Gersonide en son temps (Louvain-Paris, 1991), 159-78.
4. This is not to say that Gersonides represents the only candidate for this kind of study. For comparisons of Gersonides, Maimonides, and St. Thomas on providence and the problem of evil, see David Burrell, "Maimonides, Aquinas and Gersonides on Providence and Evil," Religious Studies, 20 (1972), 335-51; and Idit Dobbs-Weinstein, "The Existential Dimension of Providence in the Thought of Gersonides," in G. Dahan (ed.), Gersonide en son temps (Louvain-Paris, 1991), 159-78.
5. Gersonides' views on intellection (in Book I of the Wars) also resemble the Augustinian theory of divine illumination that informs Malebranche's doctrine of the vision in God; see Charles Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide (Paris, 1973), 428.
6. 3), cited as Wars.
7. This has been recognized, for example, both by Harry Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, (2 vols., New York, 1959) and Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters: Time, Creation and Cosmology in Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Albany, 2000). See also my forthcoming book, Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind, chapters 4 and 5.
8. This has been recognized, for example, both by Harry Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, (2 vols., New York, 1959) and Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters: Time, Creation and Cosmology in Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Albany, 2000). See also my forthcoming book, Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind, chapters 4 and 5.
9. This has been recognized, for example, both by Harry Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, (2 vols., New York, 1959) and Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters: Time, Creation and Cosmology in Medieval Jewish Philosophy (Albany, 2000). See also my forthcoming book, Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind, chapters 4 and 5.
10. The Treatise on Nature and Grace (1680) presents in a more complete and systematic manner themes that are also present in Malebranche's Search After Truth (1674) and Dialogues on Metaphysics (1688).
11. The Treatise on Nature and Grace (1680) presents in a more complete and systematic manner themes that are also present in Malebranche's Search After Truth (1674) and Dialogues on Metaphysics (1688).
12. The Treatise on Nature and Grace (1680) presents in a more complete and systematic manner themes that are also present in Malebranche's Search After Truth (1674) and Dialogues on Metaphysics (1688).
13. Traité de la nature et de la grace (henceforth, Treatise), I.12, in Oeuvres complètes de Malebranche, dir. A. Robinet (12 vols., Paris, 1959-66; henceforth, OC), V, 27.
14. Treatise I.13-14, OC V, 28-30.
15. Treatise I.13-14, OC V, 28-30.
16. Dialogues on Metaphysics IX.9, OC XII, 211.
17. Dialogues on Metaphysics IX.9, OC XII, 211.
18. Dialogues on Metaphysics IX.9, OC XII, 211.
19. Dialogues on Metaphysics IX.9, OC XII, 211.
20. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28.
21. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28.
22. Treatise I.22, OC V, 35.
23. Treatise I.22, OC V, 35.
24. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28. For a discussion of this relativizing of the relationship between end (world) and means (laws), and its subsequent influence on Leibniz's theodicy, see Catherine Wilson, "Leibnizian Optimism," Journal of Philosophy, 80 (1983), 765-83. For a comparison of Malebranche and Leibniz on the theodicy problem, see Steven Nadler, "Choosing a Theodicy: The Leibniz-Malebranche-Arnauld Connection," JHI, 55 (1994), 573-89.
25. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28. For a discussion of this relativizing of the relationship between end (world) and means (laws), and its subsequent influence on Leibniz's theodicy, see Catherine Wilson, "Leibnizian Optimism," Journal of Philosophy, 80 (1983), 765-83. For a comparison of Malebranche and Leibniz on the theodicy problem, see Steven Nadler, "Choosing a Theodicy: The Leibniz-Malebranche-Arnauld Connection," JHI, 55 (1994), 573-89.
26. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28. For a discussion of this relativizing of the relationship between end (world) and means (laws), and its subsequent influence on Leibniz's theodicy, see Catherine Wilson, "Leibnizian Optimism," Journal of Philosophy, 80 (1983), 765-83. For a comparison of Malebranche and Leibniz on the theodicy problem, see Steven Nadler, "Choosing a Theodicy: The Leibniz-Malebranche-Arnauld Connection," JHI, 55 (1994), 573-89.
27. Treatise I.13, OC V, 28. For a discussion of this relativizing of the relationship between end (world) and means (laws), and its subsequent influence on Leibniz's theodicy, see Catherine Wilson, "Leibnizian Optimism," Journal of Philosophy, 80 (1983), 765-83. For a comparison of Malebranche and Leibniz on the theodicy problem, see Steven Nadler, "Choosing a Theodicy: The Leibniz-Malebranche-Arnauld Connection," JHI, 55 (1994), 573-89.
28. Treatise I.21, OC V, 34.
29. Treatise I.21, OC V, 34.
30. Strictly speaking, for Malebranche even in the case of miracles God is acting by general volitions, that is, in accordance with certain laws; it is just that in these cases the laws are not the laws of nature but higher laws that are unknown to us.
31. Gersonides also addresses the problem of evil in his Commentary on the Book of Job. The discussion there is substantially the same as in the Wars, so I shall use primarily the latter. The translation of the Job commentary that I refer to is by Abraham Lassen, The Commentary of Levi ben Gersom on the Book of Job (New York, 1946).
32. See especially Wars II.2.
33. Wars V.2.4.
34. For Gersonides, then, there are eight primary spheres. There are also secondary spheres associated with each primary sphere to help explain the complexity of its motion; see Wars V.3. For a discussion of Gersonides' cosmology, see Bernard Goldstein, "Preliminary Remarks on Levi ben Gershom's Cosmology," Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 3/9 (1969), 239-54; Gad Freudenthal, "Cosmogenie et physique chez Gersonide," Revue des Etudes Juives, 145 (1986), 295-314; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part IV.
35. For Gersonides, then, there are eight primary spheres. There are also secondary spheres associated with each primary sphere to help explain the complexity of its motion; see Wars V.3. For a discussion of Gersonides' cosmology, see Bernard Goldstein, "Preliminary Remarks on Levi ben Gershom's Cosmology," Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 3/9 (1969), 239-54; Gad Freudenthal, "Cosmogenie et physique chez Gersonide," Revue des Etudes Juives, 145 (1986), 295-314; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part IV.
36. For Gersonides, then, there are eight primary spheres. There are also secondary spheres associated with each primary sphere to help explain the complexity of its motion; see Wars V.3. For a discussion of Gersonides' cosmology, see Bernard Goldstein, "Preliminary Remarks on Levi ben Gershom's Cosmology," Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 3/9 (1969), 239-54; Gad Freudenthal, "Cosmogenie et physique chez Gersonide," Revue des Etudes Juives, 145 (1986), 295-314; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part IV.
37. For Gersonides, then, there are eight primary spheres. There are also secondary spheres associated with each primary sphere to help explain the complexity of its motion; see Wars V.3. For a discussion of Gersonides' cosmology, see Bernard Goldstein, "Preliminary Remarks on Levi ben Gershom's Cosmology," Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 3/9 (1969), 239-54; Gad Freudenthal, "Cosmogenie et physique chez Gersonide," Revue des Etudes Juives, 145 (1986), 295-314; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part IV.
38. There are, in fact, 50 separate intellects, corresponding to all the primary and secondary celestial spheres.
39. The Guide for the Perplexed, II.4; in the translation by Shlomo Pines (2 vols., Chicago, 1964), II, 259.
40. See Wars VI.1.8; V.3.8. For Maimonides, see Guide II.19.
41. See Wars VI.1.8; V.3.8. For Maimonides, see Guide II.19.
42. The only events to escape the astral determinism are the free choices exercised by human beings; see Wars II.2.
43. Wars II.2, vol. 1, 34-35.
44. Wars V.3.13, vol. 3, 185.
45. Wars V.3.13, vol. 3, 188-89.
46. Gersonides says that the Agent Intellect is "the giver of forms" (Wars I.6). He is following Maimonides here; see Guide 2.12.
47. Gersonides says that the Agent Intellect is "the giver of forms" (Wars I.6). He is following Maimonides here; see Guide 2.12.
48. Wars, I.6, vol. 1, 152.
49. The issue of contingency and human freedom in Gersonides is a vexed one. It seems absolutely clear to me, at least, that Gersonides is committed to free choice (bechirah) for human beings, and that this is the sole domain of contingency in his universe; see Wars II.2. See the discussions by Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters, 126-27; and Charles Manekin, "Freedom Within Reason? Gersonides on Human Choice," in Freedom and Moral Responsibility, eds. Charles Manekin and Menachem Kellner (Bethesda, 1997), 165-204.
50. The issue of contingency and human freedom in Gersonides is a vexed one. It seems absolutely clear to me, at least, that Gersonides is committed to free choice (bechirah) for human beings, and that this is the sole domain of contingency in his universe; see Wars II.2. See the discussions by Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters, 126-27; and Charles Manekin, "Freedom Within Reason? Gersonides on Human Choice," in Freedom and Moral Responsibility, eds. Charles Manekin and Menachem Kellner (Bethesda, 1997), 165-204.
51. The issue of contingency and human freedom in Gersonides is a vexed one. It seems absolutely clear to me, at least, that Gersonides is committed to free choice (bechirah) for human beings, and that this is the sole domain of contingency in his universe; see Wars II.2. See the discussions by Tamar Rudavsky, Time Matters, 126-27; and Charles Manekin, "Freedom Within Reason? Gersonides on Human Choice," in Freedom and Moral Responsibility, eds. Charles Manekin and Menachem Kellner (Bethesda, 1997), 165-204.
52. Wars III.6, vol. 2, 135. For discussions of Gersonides' views on God's knowledge of particulars, see Norbert Samuelson's commentary in The Wars of the Lord: Treatise Three: On God's Knowledge: A Translation and Commentary (Toronto, 1977); Rudavsky, Time Matters, 133-34; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part II, chapter 3.
53. Wars III.6, vol. 2, 135. For discussions of Gersonides' views on God's knowledge of particulars, see Norbert Samuelson's commentary in The Wars of the Lord: Treatise Three: On God's Knowledge: A Translation and Commentary (Toronto, 1977); Rudavsky, Time Matters, 133-34; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part II, chapter 3.
54. Wars III.6, vol. 2, 135. For discussions of Gersonides' views on God's knowledge of particulars, see Norbert Samuelson's commentary in The Wars of the Lord: Treatise Three: On God's Knowledge: A Translation and Commentary (Toronto, 1977); Rudavsky, Time Matters, 133-34; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part II, chapter 3.
55. Wars III.6, vol. 2, 135. For discussions of Gersonides' views on God's knowledge of particulars, see Norbert Samuelson's commentary in The Wars of the Lord: Treatise Three: On God's Knowledge: A Translation and Commentary (Toronto, 1977); Rudavsky, Time Matters, 133-34; and Touati, La pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part II, chapter 3.
56. In the Commentary on Job, he also identifies it as Job's own view (21).
57. And of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar; Commentary on Job, 37-55.
58. And Elihu; Commentary on Job, 199-202.
59. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 166.
60. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 171.
61. Compare the discussions of Gersonides' account of providence in Robert Eisen, Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People (Albany, 1995); Menachem Kellner, "Gersonides, Providence, and the Rabbinic Tradition," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 42 (1974), 673-85; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part V. See also the brief, general discussion in J. David Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides (New York, 1973); and the discussion of Gersonides' approach to the problem of evil in Oliver Leaman, Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995), chapter 5.
62. Compare the discussions of Gersonides' account of providence in Robert Eisen, Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People (Albany, 1995); Menachem Kellner, "Gersonides, Providence, and the Rabbinic Tradition," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 42 (1974), 673-85; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part V. See also the brief, general discussion in J. David Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides (New York, 1973); and the discussion of Gersonides' approach to the problem of evil in Oliver Leaman, Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995), chapter 5.
63. Compare the discussions of Gersonides' account of providence in Robert Eisen, Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People (Albany, 1995); Menachem Kellner, "Gersonides, Providence, and the Rabbinic Tradition," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 42 (1974), 673-85; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part V. See also the brief, general discussion in J. David Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides (New York, 1973); and the discussion of Gersonides' approach to the problem of evil in Oliver Leaman, Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995), chapter 5.
64. Compare the discussions of Gersonides' account of providence in Robert Eisen, Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People (Albany, 1995); Menachem Kellner, "Gersonides, Providence, and the Rabbinic Tradition," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 42 (1974), 673-85; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part V. See also the brief, general discussion in J. David Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides (New York, 1973); and the discussion of Gersonides' approach to the problem of evil in Oliver Leaman, Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995), chapter 5.
65. Compare the discussions of Gersonides' account of providence in Robert Eisen, Gersonides on Providence, Covenant, and the Chosen People (Albany, 1995); Menachem Kellner, "Gersonides, Providence, and the Rabbinic Tradition," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 42 (1974), 673-85; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, Part V. See also the brief, general discussion in J. David Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides (New York, 1973); and the discussion of Gersonides' approach to the problem of evil in Oliver Leaman, Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (Cambridge, 1995), chapter 5.
66. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 168; MH 160.
67. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 68-69.
68. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 169.
69. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 169.
70. Wars IV.5, vol. 2, 176-77.
71. La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, V.1.
72. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 183-84.
73. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 184.
74. Wars, 1.6, vol. 1, 151.
75. Wars V.3.4, vol. 3, 135.
76. Wars V.3.9.
77. Wars V.3.13, vol. 3, 189. This is not to say, however, that the knowledge in the Agent Intellect is identical in all respects with God's knowledge.
78. Wars V. 13. The "blueprint" analogy is from Feldman's introduction, Wars, volume 1, 82.
79. Wars V. 13. The "blueprint" analogy is from Feldman's introduction, Wars, volume 1, 82.
80. Since the Agent Intellect emanates from the higher separate intellects, it includes their knowledge of their respective domains as well; see Wars V.13.
81. Gersonides uses a Hebrew transliteration of the Greek term nomos; Wars V.3.13, vol. 3, 186; MH 286.
82. Wars I.13. See Davidson, "Gersonides on the Material and Active Intellects," 205-39; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, VI.1.
83. Wars I.13. See Davidson, "Gersonides on the Material and Active Intellects," 205-39; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, VI.1.
84. Wars I.13. See Davidson, "Gersonides on the Material and Active Intellects," 205-39; and Touati, La Pensée philosophique et théologique de Gersonide, VI.1.
85. This process is, in part, the subject of Book I of the Wars.
86. See Bleich, Providence in the Philosophy of Gersonides, 40.
87. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 180.
88. Wars IV.3, vol. 2, 173.
89. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 181. This is, I believe, the same theory of providence that Maimonides offers; see Guide III.51.
90. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 181. This is, I believe, the same theory of providence that Maimonides offers; see Guide III.51.
91. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 182; MH 169.
92. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 182-83. True and lasting spiritual happiness is, in fact, reserved not for this life but for the world-to-come; see Wars I.13, vol. 1, 224-25.
93. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 182-83. True and lasting spiritual happiness is, in fact, reserved not for this life but for the world-to-come; see Wars I.13, vol. 1, 224-25.
94. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 183. Kellner has argued that in his claim that the distribution of material goods in this world is not always governed by justice, Gersonides goes against rabbinic tradition; see "Gersonides, Providence and the Rabbinic Tradition."
95. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 183. Kellner has argued that in his claim that the distribution of material goods in this world is not always governed by justice, Gersonides goes against rabbinic tradition; see "Gersonides, Providence and the Rabbinic Tradition."
96. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 183.
97. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 184.
98. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 185.
99. That God sees these possible effects of the order of nature is clear from Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 189.
100. See Wars III.
101. Samuelson insists that God knows particulars as individuals (that which is capable of a unique reference) but not as particulars (that which exists materially): see The Wars of the Lord: Treatise Three: On God's Knowledge: A Translation and Commentary, 64.
102. See Samuelson, Commentary, 5.
103. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 189.
104. It is important to remember here, in trying to make sense of this way of describing Gersonides' view, that God does have knowledge of particulars, just not as particulars.
105. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 185-86. The term "inappropriate" is an approximation, of course, of the Hebrew; see MH 172.
106. One could argue, however, that Gersonides' "maximum order" and Malebranche's "maximum simplicity" amount to the same thing.
107. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 191.
108. Wars IV.6, vol. 2, 186.
109. I am grateful to Tamar Rudavsky for her helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.