Animism and empiricism: Copernican physics and the origins of William Gilbert's experimental method

Journal of the History of Ideas

Volumn 62, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 99-119

  Henry, John ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0042405048     PISSN: 00225037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3654177     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Edgar Zilsel, "The Origins of William Gilbert's Experimental Method," JHI, 2 (1941), 1-32 (henceforward cited as "Zilsel").
2. William Gilbert, De magnete, magnetisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; Physiologia nova, plurimis & arguments, & experiments demonstrata (London, 1600); English edition: De magnete, tr. P. Fleury Mottelay (New York, 1958), cited hereafter as "De magnete"; and see D. H. D. Roller, The De Magnete of William Gilbert (Amsterdam 1959), 50-91.
3. William Gilbert, De magnete, magnetisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; Physiologia nova, plurimis & arguments, & experiments demonstrata (London, 1600); English edition: De magnete, tr. P. Fleury Mottelay (New York, 1958), cited hereafter as "De magnete"; and see D. H. D. Roller, The De Magnete of William Gilbert (Amsterdam 1959), 50-91.
4. William Gilbert, De magnete, magnetisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; Physiologia nova, plurimis & arguments, & experiments demonstrata (London, 1600); English edition: De magnete, tr. P. Fleury Mottelay (New York, 1958), cited hereafter as "De magnete"; and see D. H. D. Roller, The De Magnete of William Gilbert (Amsterdam 1959), 50-91.
5. See Zilsel, 24, but also 12-24. Zilsel makes the more general claim that modern science had its origin in "the experimenting manual workers of early capitalism" (24, 26-29), and in "The Sociological Roots of Science," American Journal of Sociology, 47 (1942), 544-62.
6. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
7. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
8. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
9. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
10. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
11. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
12. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
13. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
14. 2); A. R. Hall, "The Scholar and the Craftsman in the Scientific Revolution," and A. C. Crombie "The Significance of Medieval Discussions of Scientific Method for the Scientific Revolution," both in M. Clagett (ed.), Critical Problems in the History of Science (Madison, 1959), 3-23 and 79-101; P. Rossi, Philosophy, Technology and the Arts in the Early Modern Era (New York, 1970); J. A. Bennett, "The Mechanics' Philosophy and the Mechanical Philosophy," History of Science, 24 (1986), 1-28; and H. F. Cohen, The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry (Chicago, 1994), 328-50.
15. Zilsel, 27.
16. Petrus Pergrinus Maricurtensis, De magnete, seu rota perpetui motus, libellus' nunc primum promulgatus (Augsburg, 1558), and The Epistle of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet, tr. S. P. Thompson (London, 1902); and H. D. Harradon, "Some Early Contributions to the History of Geomagnetism - I: The Letter of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet," Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 48 (1943), 3-17. Cited below as "Harradon"; letter dated 8 August 1269. Robert Norman, The Newe Attractive. Containing a short discourse of the Magnes or Loadstone (London, 1581), reprinted in 1585, 1592, and 1596.
17. Petrus Pergrinus Maricurtensis, De magnete, seu rota perpetui motus, libellus' nunc primum promulgatus (Augsburg, 1558), and The Epistle of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet, tr. S. P. Thompson (London, 1902); and H. D. Harradon, "Some Early Contributions to the History of Geomagnetism - I: The Letter of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet," Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 48 (1943), 3-17. Cited below as "Harradon"; letter dated 8 August 1269. Robert Norman, The Newe Attractive. Containing a short discourse of the Magnes or Loadstone (London, 1581), reprinted in 1585, 1592, and 1596.
18. Petrus Pergrinus Maricurtensis, De magnete, seu rota perpetui motus, libellus' nunc primum promulgatus (Augsburg, 1558), and The Epistle of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet, tr. S. P. Thompson (London, 1902); and H. D. Harradon, "Some Early Contributions to the History of Geomagnetism - I: The Letter of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet," Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 48 (1943), 3-17. Cited below as "Harradon"; letter dated 8 August 1269. Robert Norman, The Newe Attractive. Containing a short discourse of the Magnes or Loadstone (London, 1581), reprinted in 1585, 1592, and 1596.
19. Petrus Pergrinus Maricurtensis, De magnete, seu rota perpetui motus, libellus' nunc primum promulgatus (Augsburg, 1558), and The Epistle of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet, tr. S. P. Thompson (London, 1902); and H. D. Harradon, "Some Early Contributions to the History of Geomagnetism - I: The Letter of Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de Foucaucourt, Soldier, Concerning the Magnet," Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 48 (1943), 3-17. Cited below as "Harradon"; letter dated 8 August 1269. Robert Norman, The Newe Attractive. Containing a short discourse of the Magnes or Loadstone (London, 1581), reprinted in 1585, 1592, and 1596.
20. See Cohen, op. cit., 340-41.
21. Zilsel, 14.
22. Ibid., 15.
23. See M. B. Hesse, "Gilbert and the Historians," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 11 (1960), 1-10, 130-42.
24. Zilsel, 15, translation differing slightly from Mottelay's (De magnets, Bk. III, ch. 4, 184).
25. Ibid.
26. See De magnete, Bk. I, ch. 10, 48; also 47. Cf. Zilsel, 15, and 14 where, citing the same passage, he writes that Gilbert "describes how he himself manufactures the wrought iron he needs for his experiments."
27. Zilsel, 12; and see also Roller, op. cit., 39-42.
28. Zilsel, 29.
29. Zilsel, 30.
30. De magnete, Bk. I, ch. 1, 15. See Zilsel, 19.
31. v) not to himself but to Archimedes, Pythagoras and "sundrie others, that are mentioned in aucthours."
32. Zilsel, 24; and 6, 12, 23, on the origins of Gilbert's method, and therefore of modern science in general.
33. New Attractive, 8.
34. Ibid.
35. New Attractive, 9.
36. Zilsel, 28.
37. Zilsel, 27.
38. Zilsel, 12-13.
39. Zilsel, 14, and 25, where Zilsel (note 34) suggests the importance of military engineering to Gilbert as well.
40. Zilsel, 5.
41. Zilsel, 9. See De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 318.
42. De magnete, "Address by Edward Wright," xliii. See F. R. Johnson, Astronomical Thought in Renaissance England: A Study of the English Scientific Writings from 1500 to 1645 (Baltimore, 1937), 216; G. Freudenthal, "Theory of Matter and Cosmology in William Gilbert's De magnete," Isis, 74 (1983), 22-37; and Stephen Pumfrey, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy, 1600-1650," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brake to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 45-53.
43. De magnete, "Address by Edward Wright," xliii. See F. R. Johnson, Astronomical Thought in Renaissance England: A Study of the English Scientific Writings from 1500 to 1645 (Baltimore, 1937), 216; G. Freudenthal, "Theory of Matter and Cosmology in William Gilbert's De magnete," Isis, 74 (1983), 22-37; and Stephen Pumfrey, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy, 1600-1650," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brake to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 45-53.
44. De magnete, "Address by Edward Wright," xliii. See F. R. Johnson, Astronomical Thought in Renaissance England: A Study of the English Scientific Writings from 1500 to 1645 (Baltimore, 1937), 216; G. Freudenthal, "Theory of Matter and Cosmology in William Gilbert's De magnete," Isis, 74 (1983), 22-37; and Stephen Pumfrey, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy, 1600-1650," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brake to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 45-53.
45. De magnete, "Address by Edward Wright," xliii. See F. R. Johnson, Astronomical Thought in Renaissance England: A Study of the English Scientific Writings from 1500 to 1645 (Baltimore, 1937), 216; G. Freudenthal, "Theory of Matter and Cosmology in William Gilbert's De magnete," Isis, 74 (1983), 22-37; and Stephen Pumfrey, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy, 1600-1650," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brake to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 45-53.
46. Nicholas Copernicus, Complete Works: On the Revolutions, tr. E. Rosen (Baltimore, 1992), 17 (Bk. I, ch. 9).
47. R. S. Westman, "The Astronomer's Role in the Sixteenth Century: A Preliminary Study," History of Science, 18 (1980), 105-47;
48. also N. Jardine, The Birth of History and Philosophy of Science: Kepler's A defence of Tycho against Ursus, with Essays on Its Provenance and Significance (Cambridge, 1984), 225-57;
49. idem, "Epistemology of the Sciences," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, ed. C. B. Schmitt and Q. Skinner (Cambridge, 1988), 697-702;
50. J. M. Lattis, Between Copernicus and Galileo: Christoph Clavius and the Collapse of Ptolemaic Astronomy (Chicago, 1994);
51. and P. Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, 1995).
52. Copernicus, Bk. I, ch. 10, 20.
53. Such thinkers were called "philosophizing astronomers" by Johannes Kepler (see Westman, op. cit., p. 117), and included Thomas Digges, Christopher Rothmann, Michael Maestlin, Kepler, and Galileo; Gilbert's name should also be added to this list.
54. De magnete, Bk. I, ch. 17, 64-71. See W. B. Ashworth Jr., "Natural History and the Emblematic World View," in Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, eds. D. C. Lindberg and R. S. Westman (Cambridge, 1990), 303-32.
55. De magnete, Bk. I, ch. 17, 64-71. See W. B. Ashworth Jr., "Natural History and the Emblematic World View," in Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution, eds. D. C. Lindberg and R. S. Westman (Cambridge, 1990), 303-32.
56. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 1, 313.
57. Zilsel, 4.
58. Zilsel, 12.
59. Zilsel, 5-6, translation from De magnete, differing slightly from that of Mottelay, De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 332.
60. De magnete, Bk. III, ch. 1, 179-80; and see Freudenthal, op. cit.
61. De magnete, Bk. III, ch. 1, 179-80; and see Freudenthal, op. cit.
62. Zilsel, 25.
63. Newe Attractive, 9-10. In fact the text says the astrolabe-like plate should be divided into 160 parts, but this is obviously a typographical error.
64. Newe Attractive, 12-15, also 18.
65. Newe Attractive, 17, 18.
66. Harradon, 7-8.
67. See De magnete, 275-304.
68. See Pumfrey, op. cit., and J. A. Bennett, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy from Wilkins to Hooke," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 222-30; and Johnson, op. cit., 235-43.
69. See Pumfrey, op. cit., and J. A. Bennett, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy from Wilkins to Hooke," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 222-30; and Johnson, op. cit., 235-43.
70. See Pumfrey, op. cit., and J. A. Bennett, "Magnetical Philosophy and Astronomy from Wilkins to Hooke," Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton, eds. R. Taton and C. Wilson (Cambridge, 1989), 222-30; and Johnson, op. cit., 235-43.
71. th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley, 1979), 169, Gilbert is best seen as a "moderate peripatetic and not above plagiarizing those he criticizes" (a view opposed by Freudenthal, op. cit.).
72. th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley, 1979), 169, Gilbert is best seen as a "moderate peripatetic and not above plagiarizing those he criticizes" (a view opposed by Freudenthal, op. cit.).
73. De magnete, Bk. V, ch. 1, 275. See also Bk. VI, eh. 1, 314: "one experiment [magnetic dip] reveals plainly the grand magnetic nature of the earth..."
74. Ibid.
75. See, e.g., C. H. Cotter, A History of Nautical Astronomy (London, 1968).
76. Freudenthal's analysis of Gilbert's attempts to develop a new theory of matter in support of his new physics and cosmology supports the argument that if Gilbert's main concern was the practical uses of iron and magnets, he would not need to bother himself about such niceties.
77. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 331.
78. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 333.
79. Harradon, 7 and 11.
80. Harradon, 4.
81. Harradon, 6.
82. Harradon, 7. See Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vols.; New York, 1923-58), especially VI, ch. 43, 390-436; and VII, ch. 10, 272-322; S. Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 214-32; "The Scientific Status of Demonology," in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, ed. B. Vickers (Cambridge, 1984), 351-74; B. P. Copenhaver, "Astrology and Magic," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, 264-300.; and J. Henry, "Magic and Science in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. G. N. Cantor et al. (London, 1990), 583-96.
83. Harradon, 7. See Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vols.; New York, 1923-58), especially VI, ch. 43, 390-436; and VII, ch. 10, 272-322; S. Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 214-32; "The Scientific Status of Demonology," in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, ed. B. Vickers (Cambridge, 1984), 351-74; B. P. Copenhaver, "Astrology and Magic," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, 264-300.; and J. Henry, "Magic and Science in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. G. N. Cantor et al. (London, 1990), 583-96.
84. Harradon, 7. See Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vols.; New York, 1923-58), especially VI, ch. 43, 390-436; and VII, ch. 10, 272-322; S. Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 214-32; "The Scientific Status of Demonology," in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, ed. B. Vickers (Cambridge, 1984), 351-74; B. P. Copenhaver, "Astrology and Magic," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, 264-300.; and J. Henry, "Magic and Science in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. G. N. Cantor et al. (London, 1990), 583-96.
85. Harradon, 7. See Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vols.; New York, 1923-58), especially VI, ch. 43, 390-436; and VII, ch. 10, 272-322; S. Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 214-32; "The Scientific Status of Demonology," in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, ed. B. Vickers (Cambridge, 1984), 351-74; B. P. Copenhaver, "Astrology and Magic," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, 264-300.; and J. Henry, "Magic and Science in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. G. N. Cantor et al. (London, 1990), 583-96.
86. Harradon, 7. See Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vols.; New York, 1923-58), especially VI, ch. 43, 390-436; and VII, ch. 10, 272-322; S. Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 214-32; "The Scientific Status of Demonology," in Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance, ed. B. Vickers (Cambridge, 1984), 351-74; B. P. Copenhaver, "Astrology and Magic," in The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy, 264-300.; and J. Henry, "Magic and Science in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," in A Companion to the History of Modern Science, ed. G. N. Cantor et al. (London, 1990), 583-96.
87. Harradon, 6.
88. Thorndike, op. cit., I, 2; see also P. Rossi, Francis Bacon: From Magic to Science (London, 1968), W. Eamon, Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modem Culture (Princeton, 1994); and T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton, 1995).
89. Thorndike, op. cit., I, 2; see also P. Rossi, Francis Bacon: From Magic to Science (London, 1968), W. Eamon, Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modem Culture (Princeton, 1994); and T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton, 1995).
90. Thorndike, op. cit., I, 2; see also P. Rossi, Francis Bacon: From Magic to Science (London, 1968), W. Eamon, Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modem Culture (Princeton, 1994); and T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton, 1995).
91. Thorndike, op. cit., I, 2; see also P. Rossi, Francis Bacon: From Magic to Science (London, 1968), W. Eamon, Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modem Culture (Princeton, 1994); and T. L. Hankins and R. J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton, 1995).
92. Zilsel, 26.
93. De magnete, "Author's Preface," xlvii.
94. De magnete, "Author's Preface," xlix, and I. J. L. Heilbron, op. cit., 169, has noted with some contempt what he calls Gilbert's advocacy of his own originality, but in no case does Gilbert refer to his experimental method in these terms.
95. De magnete, "Author's Preface," xlix, and I. J. L. Heilbron, op. cit., 169, has noted with some contempt what he calls Gilbert's advocacy of his own originality, but in no case does Gilbert refer to his experimental method in these terms.
96. Zilsel, 28.
97. Freudenthal, op. cit., 24-28.
98. De magnete, especially Bk. V, ch. 12, 308-12. See Self-Motion, From Aristotle to Newton, ed. M. L. Gill and J. G. Lennox (Princeton, 1994).
99. De magnete, especially Bk. V, ch. 12, 308-12. See Self-Motion, From Aristotle to Newton, ed. M. L. Gill and J. G. Lennox (Princeton, 1994).
100. De magnete, Bk. V, ch. 12, 311-12. See Roller, op. cit., 153.
101. De magnete, Bk. V, ch. 12, 311-12. See Roller, op. cit., 153.
102. Hesse, op. cit., 1-2.
103. Zilsel, 3 and 5.
104. Harradon, 7.
105. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 327. Freudenthal, op. cit., 33; also, Johnson, op. cit., 216. Others have preferred to deny that Gilbert was a fully-fledged Copernican (Freudenthal, op. cit., 33, note 44, and Roller, op. cit., 162 and 173).
106. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 327. Freudenthal, op. cit., 33; also, Johnson, op. cit., 216. Others have preferred to deny that Gilbert was a fully-fledged Copernican (Freudenthal, op. cit., 33, note 44, and Roller, op. cit., 162 and 173).
107. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 327. Freudenthal, op. cit., 33; also, Johnson, op. cit., 216. Others have preferred to deny that Gilbert was a fully-fledged Copernican (Freudenthal, op. cit., 33, note 44, and Roller, op. cit., 162 and 173).
108. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 327. Freudenthal, op. cit., 33; also, Johnson, op. cit., 216. Others have preferred to deny that Gilbert was a fully-fledged Copernican (Freudenthal, op. cit., 33, note 44, and Roller, op. cit., 162 and 173).
109. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 3, 327. Freudenthal, op. cit., 33; also, Johnson, op. cit., 216. Others have preferred to deny that Gilbert was a fully-fledged Copernican (Freudenthal, op. cit., 33, note 44, and Roller, op. cit., 162 and 173).
110. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 331.
111. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 328.
112. De magnete, Bk. VI, ch. 4, 328-29.