Health care in prisons, labour and concentration camps in early Soviet Russia, 1918-1921

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 7, 2000, Pages 1257-1274

  Conroy, Mary Schaeffer ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0042371705     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713663131     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. For discussion on the relationship of health care specialists and the new Soviet government see John F. Hutchinson, Politics and Public Health in Revolutionary Russia, 1890-1918 (Baltimore and London, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), pp. 173-195.
2. Mary Schaeffer Conroy, In Health and In Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists, and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia (Boulder, CO, East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1994), pp. 376-443.
3. Larry E. Holmes, The Kremlin and the Schoolhouse: Reforming Education in Soviet Russia, 1917-1931 (Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1991), documents how lack of economic wherewithall, turf wars and cleavage between central and local officials paralysed plans to revamp Soviet education.
4. George Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police (Oxford and London, Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 178.
5. For details on the origins of the Civil War see Geoffrey Swain, The Origins of the Russian Civil War (London and New York, Longman, 1996), passim. For a survey of the Civil War see Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston, Allen and Unwin, 1987); Jonathan D. Smele, Civil War in Siberia: the Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918-1920 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
6. For details on the origins of the Civil War see Geoffrey Swain, The Origins of the Russian Civil War (London and New York, Longman, 1996), passim. For a survey of the Civil War see Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston, Allen and Unwin, 1987); Jonathan D. Smele, Civil War in Siberia: the Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918-1920 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
7. For details on the origins of the Civil War see Geoffrey Swain, The Origins of the Russian Civil War (London and New York, Longman, 1996), passim. For a survey of the Civil War see Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston, Allen and Unwin, 1987); Jonathan D. Smele, Civil War in Siberia: the Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918-1920 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
8. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Arkhipelag Gulag, 1918-1956, parts III-IV, 1974, p. 20, based on materials in TsGAOR, fond 393, as quoted in Leggett, The Cheka, p. 398.
9. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Arkhipelag Gulag, 1918-1956, parts III-IV, 1974, p. 20, based on materials in TsGAOR, fond 393, as quoted in Leggett, The Cheka, p. 398.
10. Cited in Legget, The Cheka, p. 178.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid. p. 360.
13. GARF (State Archive of the Russian Federation), fond 482, opis' 12, delo 7, list 9 (hereinafter f., op., d., 1. or 11). All subsequent archival references are from GARF.
14. F. 482, op. 12, d. 2, 1. 2.
15. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 37.
16. F. 482, op. 12, d. 1, 11. 1-2.
17. Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 193-194.
18. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 1 and 1 oborot.
19. V. N. Kozlyakov, 'Grazhdane! Teper' vam vsem yasno, kto takie bol'sheviki', Yaroslavskaya starina (Yaroslavl', 1992), pp. 40-43; see also Swain, Origins of the Russian Civil War, pp. 172-173.
20. V. N. Kozlyakov, 'Grazhdane! Teper' vam vsem yasno, kto takie bol'sheviki', Yaroslavskaya starina (Yaroslavl', 1992), pp. 40-43; see also Swain, Origins of the Russian Civil War, pp. 172-173.
21. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 7.
22. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 18.
23. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 1.
24. M. P. Iroshnikov, Predsedatel' Soveta Narodnykh Komissarov: ocherki gosudarstvennoi deyatel'nosti v 1917-1918 (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 341-386; T. H. Rigby, Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom, 1917-1922 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), passim; Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 191-192; Conroy, In Health and In Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia, pp. 404-407, 422-425.
25. M. P. Iroshnikov, Predsedatel' Soveta Narodnykh Komissarov: ocherki gosudarstvennoi deyatel'nosti v 1917-1918 (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 341-386; T. H. Rigby, Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom, 1917-1922 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), passim; Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 191-192; Conroy, In Health and In Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia, pp. 404-407, 422-425.
26. M. P. Iroshnikov, Predsedatel' Soveta Narodnykh Komissarov: ocherki gosudarstvennoi deyatel'nosti v 1917-1918 (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 341-386; T. H. Rigby, Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom, 1917-1922 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), passim; Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 191-192; Conroy, In Health and In Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia, pp. 404-407, 422-425.
27. M. P. Iroshnikov, Predsedatel' Soveta Narodnykh Komissarov: ocherki gosudarstvennoi deyatel'nosti v 1917-1918 (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 341-386; T. H. Rigby, Lenin's Government: Sovnarkom, 1917-1922 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), passim; Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 191-192; Conroy, In Health and In Sickness: Pharmacy, Pharmacists and the Pharmaceutical Industry in Late Imperial, Early Soviet Russia, pp. 404-407, 422-425.
28. Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 123-129, for example.
29. Peter H. Solomon Jr, Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 133-134 and passim.
30. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
31. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
32. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
33. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
34. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
35. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
36. For workers' unrest see Alexander Rabinowitch, 'Early Disenchantment with Bolshevik Rule', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 37-46. See also Jonathan Aves, Workers Against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London and New York, L. B. Taurus Publishers, Taurus Academic Studies, 1996) and Anrup Banerjii, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930 (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1997). On p. 41 and p. 167, notes 2, 3 and 4, Banerji cites a compendium of secondary sources on peasant and worker unrest, including Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, W. W. Norton, 1974); Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power (London, 1988); Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt', Slavic Review, 1966, pp. 498-499; V. A. Sidorov, Klassovaya bor'ba v dokolkhoznoi derevne (1978), p. 27.
37. Banerji, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930, p. 30, describes the Cheka's crackdown on private producers and traders as a veritable war, citing P. G. Sofinov, Ocherki istorii VChK (1917-1922 gg.) (1960), pp. 188-190.
38. Banerji, Merchants and Markets in Revolutionary Russia, 1917-1930, p. 30, describes the Cheka's crackdown on private producers and traders as a veritable war, citing P. G. Sofinov, Ocherki istorii VChK (1917-1922 gg.) (1960), pp. 188-190.
39. Leggett, The Cheka, pp. 240-241.
40. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 1 and 1 ob..
41. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 4.
42. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 1.
43. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 2, 4, 5.
44. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 4.
45. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 2, 4, 5.
46. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 5, 7 and 7 ob.
47. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 5.
48. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 11. 30-34.
49. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 44, 45, 50, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 61, 65, 66.
50. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 11. 9-11.
51. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 11. 13 and 13 ob.
52. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 15.
53. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 1. 23.
54. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 11. 28 and 28 ob.
55. F. 482, op. 12, d. 3, 11. 31-35.
56. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 11. 43, 44, 45, 46.
57. 44 F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 92.
58. See Banerji, Merchants and Markets ..., pp. 33-34, for workers' complaints about the atrophied economy.
59. Theordore H. Friedgut, Iuzovka and Revolution, vol. II (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 354-361, 369.
60. Conroy, In Health and In Sickness, pp. 418-419.
61. Banerji, Merchants and Markets ..., pp. 16-37, details the drop in productivity and output resulting from government policies and the syphoning off of potential state income through black market conduits, although he does not make explicit the connection between these developments.
62. Richard Pipes, The Unknown Lenin (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1996), p. 41.
63. Ibid., pp. 112-113.
64. Ibid., pp. 145-146.
65. For the negative impact of centralised funding and supply on the pharmaceutical industry during the Civil War see Conroy, In Health and In Sickness, pp. 411-412, 415-417.
66. F. 482, op. 12, d. 2, 1. 4. Nationalisation of pharmaceutical firms like Ferrein was in transition at the end of 1918 and beginning of 1919. See Conroy, In Health and In Sickness, pp. 404, 428. Vladimir Karlovich Ferrein and his extended family left Moscow for the Crimea in 1919. Discussions with Wence Wagner, grandson of V. K. Ferrein, Chicago, autumn 1994.
67. F. 482, op. 12, d. 2, 1. 6.
68. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 34.
69. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 86, 87 and 87 ob.
70. According to a report from Tula, dated November 1919, prisoners in tsarist Russia were paid a minuscule amount, sick prisoners received allocations costing only 40 kopeks per day, and prison doctors received low pay. F. 482, op. 12, d. 7, 11. 5 and 5 ob.
71. This circular repeated an earlier one of 7 August 1918. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 1.
72. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 2.
73. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 3.
74. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 4.
75. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 5.
76. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 8.
77. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 9.
78. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 13.
79. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 11. 14 and 14 ob.
80. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 60.
81. F. 482, op. 12, d. 9, 1. 62.
82. F. 482, op. 12, d. 11, passim.
83. F. 482, op. 12, d. 34; there are no numbers in the listy in this delo.
84. F. 482, op. 12, dela: 30, passim (hand-printed information from Kostroma guberniya), 31 (information from Danilovsk home, Korovnitskaya prison, Malogsky uezd; Rybinsk prison; Uglich etc. - no numbers on listy); 32 (11. 1-152); 33 (no numbers on listy); 34 (no numbers on listy; information written on brown wrapping paper); 35 (some information written on the back of tea wrappers); 36 (information on scraps of paper).
85. F. 482, op. 12, d. 32, 1. 29.
86. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 89.
87. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 1. 7.
88. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 11. 9, 10.
89. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 89 and 89 ob.
90. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 90.
91. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 38.
92. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 38-45.
93. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 11. 3-4.
94. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 1. 14.
95. Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, pp. 222-224.
96. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 1. 14.
97. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 1. 17.
98. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 11. 10-13.
99. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 106.
100. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 11. 106-114.
101. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 11. 22, 25.
102. F. 482, op. 12, d. 4, 1. 32.
103. F. 482, op. 12, d. 5, 1. 75.
104. F. 482, op. 12, d. 7, 1. 9.
105. F. 489, op. 12, d. 7, 1. 9.
106. F. 482, op. 12, d. 7, 11. 9-11.
107. Pipes, The Unknown Lenin, pp. 125, 135-136, 142, 174. Correspondence between and statements by Lenin and party leaders reveal expenditures on 100 000 rifles from Germany at 200 marks or 10 gold rubles each; 10 million gold rubles for purchase of German arms, September 1921; a party budget of 40 million gold rubles, February 1922; propaganda, autumn 1922.
108. See Mary Schaeffer Conroy, 'The Russian Pharmaceutical Industry in the Late Imperial-Early Soviet Period', in Kevin McDermott & John Morison (eds), Politics and Society Under the Bolsheviks (Basingstoke and London, Macmillan and New York, St Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 13-36, particularly pp. 24-31.
109. For ongoing problems during the 1930s see also Conroy, 'Pharmacy in Soviet Russia before the Great Patriotic War (1941-45)', Pharmacy in History, 40, 1, 1998, pp. 3-24.
110. Account of Dr Veronique Vasseur working in [ironically] La Sante prison in Paris, in 'A Prison Diary Shames France', Suzanne Daley, International Herald Tribune, 29-30 January 2000, pp. 1 and 5.