Review article: The liberalism of American Jews - Has it been explained?

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 369-401

  Levey, Geoffrey Brahm ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0042357165     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s000712340000750x     Document Type: Review

References (235)

1. See, for example, Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter, enlarged edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Paul R. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America (San Francisco: Freeman, 1983); Donald R. Kinder and Roderick Kiewiet, 'Economic Discontent and Voting Behavior: The Role of Personal Grievances and Collective Economic Judgment in Congressional Voting', American Journal of Political Science, 23 (1979), 495-527.
2. See, for example, Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter, enlarged edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Paul R. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America (San Francisco: Freeman, 1983); Donald R. Kinder and Roderick Kiewiet, 'Economic Discontent and Voting Behavior: The Role of Personal Grievances and Collective Economic Judgment in Congressional Voting', American Journal of Political Science, 23 (1979), 495-527.
3. See, for example, Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter, enlarged edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Paul R. Abramson, Political Attitudes in America (San Francisco: Freeman, 1983); Donald R. Kinder and Roderick Kiewiet, 'Economic Discontent and Voting Behavior: The Role of Personal Grievances and Collective Economic Judgment in Congressional Voting', American Journal of Political Science, 23 (1979), 495-527.
4. See, for example, Charles Y. Glock and Rodney Stark, Religion and Society in Tension (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965); Lawrence K. Kersten, The Lutheran Ethic: The Impact of Religion on Clergy and Laymen (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970).
5. See, for example, Charles Y. Glock and Rodney Stark, Religion and Society in Tension (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965); Lawrence K. Kersten, The Lutheran Ethic: The Impact of Religion on Clergy and Laymen (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970).
6. See, for example, William C. McCready and Andrew M. Greeley, The Ultimate Values of the American Population (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1976); Joan L. Fee, Andrew M. Greeley, William C. McCready and Teresa A. Sullivan, Young Catholics (New York: Sadlier, 1980).
7. See, for example, William C. McCready and Andrew M. Greeley, The Ultimate Values of the American Population (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1976); Joan L. Fee, Andrew M. Greeley, William C. McCready and Teresa A. Sullivan, Young Catholics (New York: Sadlier, 1980).
8. See, for example, Andrew M. Greeley, Religion: A Secular Theory (New York: The Free Press, 1982); David C. Legge and Michael R. Welch, 'Religious Roots of Political Orientations: Variations Among American Catholic Parishioners', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 135-62.
9. See, for example, Andrew M. Greeley, Religion: A Secular Theory (New York: The Free Press, 1982); David C. Legge and Michael R. Welch, 'Religious Roots of Political Orientations: Variations Among American Catholic Parishioners', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 135-62.
10. See, for example, Kenneth D. Wald, Religion and Politics in the United States, 2nd edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1992);
11. Fredrick C. Harris, 'Something Within: Religion as a Mobilizer of African-American Political Activism', Journal of Politics, 56 (1994), 42-68.
12. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
13. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
14. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
15. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
16. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
17. See Wesley Allinsmith and Beverly Allinsmith, 'Religious Affiliation and Politico-Economic Attitude: A Study of Eight Major US Religious Groups', Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), 377-89; Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Millerand Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 159, 301, 306; Steven M. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity (New York: Tavistock, 1983), pp. 139-43; Alan M. Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly, 66 (1976), 322-48; Lawrence H. Fuchs, The Political Behaviour of American Jews (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 71-111; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
18. See Everett Carll Ladd Jr, 'Jewish Life in the United States: Social and Political Values', in Joseph B. Gittler, ed., Jewish Life in the United States: Perspectives from the Social Sciences (New York: New York University Press, 1981), pp. 123-71; Steven M. Cohen, The Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1989).
19. See Everett Carll Ladd Jr, 'Jewish Life in the United States: Social and Political Values', in Joseph B. Gittler, ed., Jewish Life in the United States: Perspectives from the Social Sciences (New York: New York University Press, 1981), pp. 123-71; Steven M. Cohen, The Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1989).
20. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
21. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
22. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
23. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
24. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
25. See Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1990), pp. 138-42; Alan M. Fisher, 'Realigment of the Jewish Vote?' Political Science Quarterly, 94 (1979), 97-116; Alan M. Fisher, The Jewish Vote in 1982: A Good Look, A Good Predictor', Jewish Social Studies, 47 (1985), 281-94; Nie et al., Changing American Voter, pp. 214, 256-8; William Schneider, Michael D. Berman and Mark Schultz, 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered: "Is There a Jewish Vote?"' Ethnicity, 1 (1974), 45-92; Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 4th edn (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994), p. 107.
26. Charles S. Liebman and Steven M. Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 100. American Jews, as a group, are not always comparatively liberal on every issue; nor are they immune from the effects of standard sociodemographic cleavages. See Allen S. Maller, 'Class Factors in the Jewish Vote', Jewish Social Studies, 39 (1977), 159-62; Lee Sigelman, ' "If You Prick Us, Do We Not Bleed? If You Tickle Us, Do We Not Laugh?" Jews and Pocketbook Voting', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 977-92. I consider the significance of some of these qualifications below.
27. Charles S. Liebman and Steven M. Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 100. American Jews, as a group, are not always comparatively liberal on every issue; nor are they immune from the effects of standard sociodemographic cleavages. See Allen S. Maller, 'Class Factors in the Jewish Vote', Jewish Social Studies, 39 (1977), 159-62; Lee Sigelman, ' "If You Prick Us, Do We Not Bleed? If You Tickle Us, Do We Not Laugh?" Jews and Pocketbook Voting', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 977-92. I consider the significance of some of these qualifications below.
28. Charles S. Liebman and Steven M. Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 100. American Jews, as a group, are not always comparatively liberal on every issue; nor are they immune from the effects of standard sociodemographic cleavages. See Allen S. Maller, 'Class Factors in the Jewish Vote', Jewish Social Studies, 39 (1977), 159-62; Lee Sigelman, ' "If You Prick Us, Do We Not Bleed? If You Tickle Us, Do We Not Laugh?" Jews and Pocketbook Voting', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 977-92. I consider the significance of some of these qualifications below.
29. The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey estimated the core Jewish population in the United States (that is, counting only persons who are currently Jewish) to be 5.51 million, representing a 1.8 per cent increase in the core Jewish population since 1970. When individuals of Jewish descent were included, the Jewish population rose from 5.48 million in 1970 to 6.84 million in 1990, an increase of 24.8 per cent. See Sidney Goldstein, 'Profile of American Jewry: Insights from the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey', in David Singer, ed., American Jewish Year Book 1992, vol. 92 (New York and Philadelphia: American Jewish Committee and Jewish Publication Society of America, 1992), p. 93. It should be noted that the survey research upon which the discussion of Jewish liberalism is based typically relies on a sociological, rather than a religiously Orthodox, definition of Jewish membership. That is, individuals count as Jews if they are born of a Jewish parent or are regarded by other Jews as Jewish or who consider themselves to be Jewish. Such a definition is obviously far more inclusive than that applicable in Orthodox Judaism, which insists upon matriarchal lineage or prescribed conversion.
30. It is important to note that little or no hard evidence is cited in support of claims of a high Jewish turnout rate. See, for example, Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, 'The American Jews, the 1984 Elections, and Beyond', in Daniel J. Elazar, ed., The New Jewish Politics (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1988), p. 42; Wald, Religion and Politics, p. 321.
31. It is important to note that little or no hard evidence is cited in support of claims of a high Jewish turnout rate. See, for example, Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, 'The American Jews, the 1984 Elections, and Beyond', in Daniel J. Elazar, ed., The New Jewish Politics (Lanham, Md: University Press of America, 1988), p. 42; Wald, Religion and Politics, p. 321.
32. Stephen J. Whitfield, 'The Jewish Vote', Virginia Quarterly Review, 62 (1986), 1-20, at p. 11; New York Times, 3 November 1976, pp. 1, 19. See also David M. Pollock, 'How New York Jews Vote: Myths and Realities', in Elazar, The New Jewish Politics, p. 70.
33. Stephen J. Whitfield, 'The Jewish Vote', Virginia Quarterly Review, 62 (1986), 1-20, at p. 11; New York Times, 3 November 1976, pp. 1, 19. See also David M. Pollock, 'How New York Jews Vote: Myths and Realities', in Elazar, The New Jewish Politics, p. 70.
34. Stephen J. Whitfield, 'The Jewish Vote', Virginia Quarterly Review, 62 (1986), 1-20, at p. 11; New York Times, 3 November 1976, pp. 1, 19. See also David M. Pollock, 'How New York Jews Vote: Myths and Realities', in Elazar, The New Jewish Politics, p. 70.
35. Imre Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers, Vol. 1, ed. John Worrall and Gregory Currie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).
36. Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970); Everett Carll Ladd Jr, with Charles D. Hadley, Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s, 2nd edn (New York: Norton, 1978).
37. Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970); Everett Carll Ladd Jr, with Charles D. Hadley, Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s, 2nd edn (New York: Norton, 1978).
38. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 137-8; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States'.
39. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 137-8; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States'.
40. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 137-8; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States'.
41. See David Burner, The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918-1932 (New York: Norton, 1968), pp. 234-41; Robert Booth Fowler, Religion and Politics in America (Metuchen, NJ: American Theological Library Association and Scarecrow Press, 1985), pp. 56-7; Albert J. Menendez, Religion at the Polls (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977), pp. 49-56, 214-15; Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 30-2, 206-7, 288-94.
42. See David Burner, The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918-1932 (New York: Norton, 1968), pp. 234-41; Robert Booth Fowler, Religion and Politics in America (Metuchen, NJ: American Theological Library Association and Scarecrow Press, 1985), pp. 56-7; Albert J. Menendez, Religion at the Polls (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977), pp. 49-56, 214-15; Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 30-2, 206-7, 288-94.
43. See David Burner, The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918-1932 (New York: Norton, 1968), pp. 234-41; Robert Booth Fowler, Religion and Politics in America (Metuchen, NJ: American Theological Library Association and Scarecrow Press, 1985), pp. 56-7; Albert J. Menendez, Religion at the Polls (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977), pp. 49-56, 214-15; Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 30-2, 206-7, 288-94.
44. See David Burner, The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918-1932 (New York: Norton, 1968), pp. 234-41; Robert Booth Fowler, Religion and Politics in America (Metuchen, NJ: American Theological Library Association and Scarecrow Press, 1985), pp. 56-7; Albert J. Menendez, Religion at the Polls (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977), pp. 49-56, 214-15; Nancy J. Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of FDR (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 30-2, 206-7, 288-94.
45. Leonard Dinnerstein, Roger L. Nichols and David M. Reimers, Natives and Strangers: Ethnic Groups and the Building of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 179-83; Thomas Sowell, ed., Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (N.p.: The Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 116-17.
46. Leonard Dinnerstein, Roger L. Nichols and David M. Reimers, Natives and Strangers: Ethnic Groups and the Building of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 179-83; Thomas Sowell, ed., Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (N.p.: The Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 116-17.
47. Whitfield, The Jewish Vote', pp. 12-13.
48. See Ladd with Hadley, Transformations of the American Parry System, pp. 60, 112; Menendez, Religion at the Polls, p. 214; Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln, p. 294.
49. See Ladd with Hadley, Transformations of the American Parry System, pp. 60, 112; Menendez, Religion at the Polls, p. 214; Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln, p. 294.
50. See Ladd with Hadley, Transformations of the American Parry System, pp. 60, 112; Menendez, Religion at the Polls, p. 214; Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln, p. 294.
51. See Maurice Guysener, 'The Jewish Vote in Chicago', Jewish Social Studies, 20 (1958), 195-214; Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carll Ladd Jr, 'Jewish Academics in the United States: Their Achievements, Culture and Politics' in Morris Fine and Milton Himmelfarb, eds, American Jewish Year Book, 1971 (New York and Philadelphia: American Jewish Committee and Jewish Publication Society, 1972), pp. 110-20; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism.
52. See Maurice Guysener, 'The Jewish Vote in Chicago', Jewish Social Studies, 20 (1958), 195-214; Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carll Ladd Jr, 'Jewish Academics in the United States: Their Achievements, Culture and Politics' in Morris Fine and Milton Himmelfarb, eds, American Jewish Year Book, 1971 (New York and Philadelphia: American Jewish Committee and Jewish Publication Society, 1972), pp. 110-20; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism.
53. See Maurice Guysener, 'The Jewish Vote in Chicago', Jewish Social Studies, 20 (1958), 195-214; Seymour Martin Lipset and Everett Carll Ladd Jr, 'Jewish Academics in the United States: Their Achievements, Culture and Politics' in Morris Fine and Milton Himmelfarb, eds, American Jewish Year Book, 1971 (New York and Philadelphia: American Jewish Committee and Jewish Publication Society, 1972), pp. 110-20; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism.
54. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
55. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
56. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
57. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
58. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
59. Robert S. Erikson, Thomas D. Lancaster and David W. Romero, 'Group Components of the Presidential Vote, 1952-1984', Journal of Politics, 51 (1989), 337-46; William H. Flanigan and Nancy H. Zingale, Political Behavior of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp. 75-6, 107-8; Robert Lerner, Althea K. Nagai and Stanley Rothman, 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (1989), 330-52; Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 94-7. The exception may be certain racial integration issues, on which differential Jewish support appears to be a function of socio-demographic characteristics. See Tom W. Smith, Jewish Attitudes Toward Blacks and Race Relations (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1990), pp. 10-12, 24; John L. Sullivan, George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson, 'The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 92-106.
60. See Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, p. 179.
61. See Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; and Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Ladd found Jewish voting behaviour to be more resistant to the alleged changing social cleavages than Jewish policy preferences. This difference is also found for mass publics, and is attributed to the effects of partisanship and to the lag-time before parties align themselves to changing social cleavages. For an overview, see Ronald Inglehart, 'Changing Paradigms in Comparative Political Behavior', in Ada W. Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983), pp. 429-69, esp. at p. 438. The emergent differences between higher and lower status Jews in the 1960s might also be attributable to differential perceptions of political threat. A political interest model is discussed below.
62. See Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; and Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Ladd found Jewish voting behaviour to be more resistant to the alleged changing social cleavages than Jewish policy preferences. This difference is also found for mass publics, and is attributed to the effects of partisanship and to the lag-time before parties align themselves to changing social cleavages. For an overview, see Ronald Inglehart, 'Changing Paradigms in Comparative Political Behavior', in Ada W. Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983), pp. 429-69, esp. at p. 438. The emergent differences between higher and lower status Jews in the 1960s might also be attributable to differential perceptions of political threat. A political interest model is discussed below.
63. See Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; and Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Ladd found Jewish voting behaviour to be more resistant to the alleged changing social cleavages than Jewish policy preferences. This difference is also found for mass publics, and is attributed to the effects of partisanship and to the lag-time before parties align themselves to changing social cleavages. For an overview, see Ronald Inglehart, 'Changing Paradigms in Comparative Political Behavior', in Ada W. Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983), pp. 429-69, esp. at p. 438. The emergent differences between higher and lower status Jews in the 1960s might also be attributable to differential perceptions of political threat. A political interest model is discussed below.
64. See also Burnham, Critical Election; Abramson et al., Change and Continuity, pp. 129-30, 144-6.
65. See also Burnham, Critical Election; Abramson et al., Change and Continuity, pp. 129-30, 144-6.
66. Fuchs, Political Behavior of American Jews, p. 178.
67. Charles S. Liebman, The Ambivalent American Jew: Politics, Religion and Family in American Jewish Life (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1973), p. 140.
68. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 143-7; Samuel C. Heilman and Steven M. Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials: Modern Orthodox Jews in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 160-73.
69. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 143-7; Samuel C. Heilman and Steven M. Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials: Modern Orthodox Jews in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 160-73.
70. More recently, Judaic value approaches have been dismissed as 'a bit fanciful', since 'in some political settings Jews have managed to overcome their humanistic scruples enough to organize and operate rather ruthless agencies of coercion and terror': see Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1993), p. 140. However, the attribution of patterns to a group is hardly invalidated by the exceptional actions of a relatively few group members. All the more is this so when, as here, the members concerned typically are estranged from their group and apply to a different social and historical context from that under study. Ginsberg is on stronger ground when he notes that the 'politics of Jews varies with objective conditions' (p. 140). Yet, as we will see, it is important not to conflate facilitating conditions with motivating factors. I evaluate Ginsberg's alternative, institutional account later in the discussion.
71. For the comparative data, see Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, fn. 3, p. 181.
72. For the comparative data, see Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, fn. 3, p. 181.
73. Another cultural theory attributes American Jewish liberalism not to Jewish religious values, but to the socialist or 'communalistic' subculture of the Eastern European Jewish immigrants. See Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 623; Henry J. Feingold, 'American Liberalism and Jewish Response', Contemporary Jewry, 9 (1987/88), 19-45; William Spinrad, 'Explaining American-Jewish Liberalism: Another Attempt', Contemporary Jewry, 11 (1990), 107-19. This approach can, at best, be an ancillary explanation of the 'welfare' dimension of American Jewish liberalism, since the majority of Eastern European immigrant Jews, let alone of the overall American Jewish community, were not such socialists that they could 'fade' (Howe's term) into liberals; and socialism's sanction of centralized state control and communalism's emphasis on shared values arguably conflict with the civil liberties' dimension of American Jewish liberalism.
74. Another cultural theory attributes American Jewish liberalism not to Jewish religious values, but to the socialist or 'communalistic' subculture of the Eastern European Jewish immigrants. See Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 623; Henry J. Feingold, 'American Liberalism and Jewish Response', Contemporary Jewry, 9 (1987/88), 19-45; William Spinrad, 'Explaining American-Jewish Liberalism: Another Attempt', Contemporary Jewry, 11 (1990), 107-19. This approach can, at best, be an ancillary explanation of the 'welfare' dimension of American Jewish liberalism, since the majority of Eastern European immigrant Jews, let alone of the overall American Jewish community, were not such socialists that they could 'fade' (Howe's term) into liberals; and socialism's sanction of centralized state control and communalism's emphasis on shared values arguably conflict with the civil liberties' dimension of American Jewish liberalism.
75. Another cultural theory attributes American Jewish liberalism not to Jewish religious values, but to the socialist or 'communalistic' subculture of the Eastern European Jewish immigrants. See Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 623; Henry J. Feingold, 'American Liberalism and Jewish Response', Contemporary Jewry, 9 (1987/88), 19-45; William Spinrad, 'Explaining American-Jewish Liberalism: Another Attempt', Contemporary Jewry, 11 (1990), 107-19. This approach can, at best, be an ancillary explanation of the 'welfare' dimension of American Jewish liberalism, since the majority of Eastern European immigrant Jews, let alone of the overall American Jewish community, were not such socialists that they could 'fade' (Howe's term) into liberals; and socialism's sanction of centralized state control and communalism's emphasis on shared values arguably conflict with the civil liberties' dimension of American Jewish liberalism.
76. Werner Cohn, 'The Politics of American Jews' in Marshall Skiare, ed., The Jews: Social Patterns of an American Group (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 614-26. See also Lucy S. Dawidowicz and Leon J. Goldstein, The American Jewish Liberal Tradition', in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jewish Community in America (New York: Behrman House, 1974), pp. 285-300; and Ben Halpern, The Roots of American Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly 66 (1976), 190-214.
77. Werner Cohn, 'The Politics of American Jews' in Marshall Skiare, ed., The Jews: Social Patterns of an American Group (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 614-26. See also Lucy S. Dawidowicz and Leon J. Goldstein, The American Jewish Liberal Tradition', in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jewish Community in America (New York: Behrman House, 1974), pp. 285-300; and Ben Halpern, The Roots of American Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly 66 (1976), 190-214.
78. Werner Cohn, 'The Politics of American Jews' in Marshall Skiare, ed., The Jews: Social Patterns of an American Group (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 614-26. See also Lucy S. Dawidowicz and Leon J. Goldstein, The American Jewish Liberal Tradition', in Marshall Sklare, ed., The Jewish Community in America (New York: Behrman House, 1974), pp. 285-300; and Ben Halpern, The Roots of American Jewish Liberalism', American Jewish Historical Quarterly 66 (1976), 190-214.
79. Cohn, 'Politics of American Jews', p. 615.
80. Cohn, 'Politics of American Jews', p. 623.
81. See Nathan Glazer, 'Is Liberalism (Still) Good for the Jews?' Moment (March 1986), 16-19; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London: Croom Helm, 1982); Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered'; Ruth Wisse, If I Am Not For Myself: The Liberal Betrayal of the Jews (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
82. See Nathan Glazer, 'Is Liberalism (Still) Good for the Jews?' Moment (March 1986), 16-19; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London: Croom Helm, 1982); Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered'; Ruth Wisse, If I Am Not For Myself: The Liberal Betrayal of the Jews (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
83. See Nathan Glazer, 'Is Liberalism (Still) Good for the Jews?' Moment (March 1986), 16-19; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London: Croom Helm, 1982); Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered'; Ruth Wisse, If I Am Not For Myself: The Liberal Betrayal of the Jews (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
84. See Nathan Glazer, 'Is Liberalism (Still) Good for the Jews?' Moment (March 1986), 16-19; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London: Croom Helm, 1982); Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered'; Ruth Wisse, If I Am Not For Myself: The Liberal Betrayal of the Jews (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
85. Dawidowicz and Goldstein, 'American Jewish Liberal Tradition', p. 300.
86. Campbell et al., The American Voter, pp. 295-332; Philip E. Converse and Georges Dupeux, 'Politicization of the Electorate in France and the United States', Public Opinion Quarterly 26 (1962), 1-23.
87. Campbell et al., The American Voter, pp. 295-332; Philip E. Converse and Georges Dupeux, 'Politicization of the Electorate in France and the United States', Public Opinion Quarterly 26 (1962), 1-23.
88. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 26-7, 50-1; Stanley Rothman and S. Robert Lichter, Roots of Radicalism: Jews, Christians and the New Left (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 220-2, 333-5, 408.
89. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 26-7, 50-1; Stanley Rothman and S. Robert Lichter, Roots of Radicalism: Jews, Christians and the New Left (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 220-2, 333-5, 408.
90. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, eds, 'Introduction' to Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Macmillan, 1967).
91. See, for example, Geoffrey Alderman, The Jewish Community in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); J. A. Laponce, 'Left or Centre? The Canadian Jewish Electorate, 1953-1983', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21 (1988), 691-714; Peter Y. Medding, 'Factors Influencing the Voting Behaviour of Melbourne Jews', in Peter Y. Medding, ed., Jews in Australian Society (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 141-59; Stanley Suval, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 106-10.
92. See, for example, Geoffrey Alderman, The Jewish Community in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); J. A. Laponce, 'Left or Centre? The Canadian Jewish Electorate, 1953-1983', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21 (1988), 691-714; Peter Y. Medding, 'Factors Influencing the Voting Behaviour of Melbourne Jews', in Peter Y. Medding, ed., Jews in Australian Society (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 141-59; Stanley Suval, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 106-10.
93. See, for example, Geoffrey Alderman, The Jewish Community in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); J. A. Laponce, 'Left or Centre? The Canadian Jewish Electorate, 1953-1983', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21 (1988), 691-714; Peter Y. Medding, 'Factors Influencing the Voting Behaviour of Melbourne Jews', in Peter Y. Medding, ed., Jews in Australian Society (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 141-59; Stanley Suval, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 106-10.
94. See, for example, Geoffrey Alderman, The Jewish Community in British Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); J. A. Laponce, 'Left or Centre? The Canadian Jewish Electorate, 1953-1983', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21 (1988), 691-714; Peter Y. Medding, 'Factors Influencing the Voting Behaviour of Melbourne Jews', in Peter Y. Medding, ed., Jews in Australian Society (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 141-59; Stanley Suval, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 106-10.
95. See, for example, M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi, Generations and Politics: A Panel Study of Young Adults and Their Parents (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).
96. According to Pulzer, up to the Revolution of 1848, even most Jewish politicians, as against publicists and agitators, were conservative in their allegiances: see Peter Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848-1933 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 81-2; and Jacob Toury, Die politischen Orientierungen der Juden in Deutschland: Von Jena bis Weimar (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1966), pp. 27, 67, 101, 115. For France, see William B. Cohen and Irwin M. Wall, 'French Communism and the Jews', in Frances Malino and Bernard Wasserstein, eds, The Jews in Modern France (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985), pp. 84-5. In the opening decades of the nineteenth century 'over 60 percent of the Jews supported conservatism and loyalism, under one third were moderate Liberals, and 10 percent favoured radical parties (Democrats and similar)'. In the revolutionary period of 1848, Jewish support for the Radicals increased from 8 to 14 per cent, but the Liberals retained about one-third of the Jewish vote and the Conservatives and Loyalists retained the Jewish majority, albeit reduced to 54 percent. See Heinz Holeczek, 'The Jews and the German Liberals', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 28 (1983), 77-91, at pp. 86-7, 88, 90.
97. According to Pulzer, up to the Revolution of 1848, even most Jewish politicians, as against publicists and agitators, were conservative in their allegiances: see Peter Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848-1933 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 81-2; and Jacob Toury, Die politischen Orientierungen der Juden in Deutschland: Von Jena bis Weimar (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1966), pp. 27, 67, 101, 115. For France, see William B. Cohen and Irwin M. Wall, 'French Communism and the Jews', in Frances Malino and Bernard Wasserstein, eds, The Jews in Modern France (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985), pp. 84-5. In the opening decades of the nineteenth century 'over 60 percent of the Jews supported conservatism and loyalism, under one third were moderate Liberals, and 10 percent favoured radical parties (Democrats and similar)'. In the revolutionary period of 1848, Jewish support for the Radicals increased from 8 to 14 per cent, but the Liberals retained about one-third of the Jewish vote and the Conservatives and Loyalists retained the Jewish majority, albeit reduced to 54 percent. See Heinz Holeczek, 'The Jews and the German Liberals', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 28 (1983), 77-91, at pp. 86-7, 88, 90.
98. According to Pulzer, up to the Revolution of 1848, even most Jewish politicians, as against publicists and agitators, were conservative in their allegiances: see Peter Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848-1933 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 81-2; and Jacob Toury, Die politischen Orientierungen der Juden in Deutschland: Von Jena bis Weimar (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1966), pp. 27, 67, 101, 115. For France, see William B. Cohen and Irwin M. Wall, 'French Communism and the Jews', in Frances Malino and Bernard Wasserstein, eds, The Jews in Modern France (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985), pp. 84-5. In the opening decades of the nineteenth century 'over 60 percent of the Jews supported conservatism and loyalism, under one third were moderate Liberals, and 10 percent favoured radical parties (Democrats and similar)'. In the revolutionary period of 1848, Jewish support for the Radicals increased from 8 to 14 per cent, but the Liberals retained about one-third of the Jewish vote and the Conservatives and Loyalists retained the Jewish majority, albeit reduced to 54 percent. See Heinz Holeczek, 'The Jews and the German Liberals', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 28 (1983), 77-91, at pp. 86-7, 88, 90.
99. According to Pulzer, up to the Revolution of 1848, even most Jewish politicians, as against publicists and agitators, were conservative in their allegiances: see Peter Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848-1933 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 81-2; and Jacob Toury, Die politischen Orientierungen der Juden in Deutschland: Von Jena bis Weimar (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1966), pp. 27, 67, 101, 115. For France, see William B. Cohen and Irwin M. Wall, 'French Communism and the Jews', in Frances Malino and Bernard Wasserstein, eds, The Jews in Modern France (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985), pp. 84-5. In the opening decades of the nineteenth century 'over 60 percent of the Jews supported conservatism and loyalism, under one third were moderate Liberals, and 10 percent favoured radical parties (Democrats and similar)'. In the revolutionary period of 1848, Jewish support for the Radicals increased from 8 to 14 per cent, but the Liberals retained about one-third of the Jewish vote and the Conservatives and Loyalists retained the Jewish majority, albeit reduced to 54 percent. See Heinz Holeczek, 'The Jews and the German Liberals', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 28 (1983), 77-91, at pp. 86-7, 88, 90.
100. Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 129-38; Reinhard Rürup, 'German Liberalism and the Emancipation of the Jews', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 59-68.
101. Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 129-38; Reinhard Rürup, 'German Liberalism and the Emancipation of the Jews', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 59-68.
102. Holeczek, The Jews and the German Liberals'.
103. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p. 9; Pulzer, Jews and the German State, p. 82.
104. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p. 9; Pulzer, Jews and the German State, p. 82.
105. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p. 9; Pulzer, Jews and the German State, p. 82.
106. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p. 9; Pulzer, Jews and the German State, p. 82.
107. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p. 9; Pulzer, Jews and the German State, p. 82.
108. See, respectively, W. E. Mosse, Jews in the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Elite 1820-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); Monika Richarz, 'Jewish Social Mobility in Germany During the Time of Emancipation 1790-1871', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, 20 (1975), 69-77; and Alderman, Jewish Community in British Politics, pp. 14-21; Arthur Hertzberg, French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), p. 8; Michael A. Meyer, German Political Pressure and Jewish Religious Response in the Nineteenth Century, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 25 (New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1981), p.
109. Holeczek, 'The Jews and the German Liberals', p. 87.
110. Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, p. 147.
111. Peter Y. Medding, 'Towards a General Theory of Jewish Political Interests and Behaviour', Jewish Journal of Sociology, 19 (1977), 115-44, at p. 115.
112. Medding, 'Towards a General Theory', p. 123.
113. Medding, 'Towards a General Theory', p. 131.
114. Medding, 'Towards a General Theory', p. 133.
115. Alan M. Fisher, 'Jewish Political Shift? Erosion, Yes; Conversion, No' in Seymour Martin Lipset, Party Coalitions in the 1980s (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1981), pp. 307-25; Medding, 'Towards a General Theory', pp. 134-5.
116. Alan M. Fisher, 'Jewish Political Shift? Erosion, Yes; Conversion, No' in Seymour Martin Lipset, Party Coalitions in the 1980s (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1981), pp. 307-25; Medding, 'Towards a General Theory', pp. 134-5.
117. Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 346.
118. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 140-3.
119. Jewish support for Democratic presidential candidates has fluctuated over the past eight campaigns as follows: 90 per cent (1964); 84 per cent (1968); 67 per cent (1972); 64 per cent (1976); 60 per cent (1980 - combining liberal Independent Anderson's support of 15 per cent); 67 per cent (1984); 64 per cent (1988); 78 per cent (1992). Figures are from Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 348; Stanley and Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, p. 107.
120. Jewish support for Democratic presidential candidates has fluctuated over the past eight campaigns as follows: 90 per cent (1964); 84 per cent (1968); 67 per cent (1972); 64 per cent (1976); 60 per cent (1980 - combining liberal Independent Anderson's support of 15 per cent); 67 per cent (1984); 64 per cent (1988); 78 per cent (1992). Figures are from Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 348; Stanley and Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, p. 107.
121. Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn Against Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 244.
122. Steven M. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey of American Jews: Political and Social Outlooks (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1984), p. 29.
123. Reported in Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 41.
124. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey, p. 31.
125. Donald R. Kinder, 'Diversity and Complexity in American Public Opinion', in Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline, pp. 414-16; Sullivan et al., 'The Sources of Political Tolerance'.
126. Donald R. Kinder, 'Diversity and Complexity in American Public Opinion', in Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline, pp. 414-16; Sullivan et al., 'The Sources of Political Tolerance'.
127. Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Philadelphia politics of the period provide an exception: among virtually all ethnic groups, including Jews, the higher the socio-economic status, the higher the Democratic vote (see John L. Shover, 'Ethnicity and Religion in Philadelphia Politics, 1924-40', American Quarterly, 25 (1973), 508-9). This may have been due to the particular history of the Republican Party in Philadelphia (see Sandra Featherman, 'Jewish Politics in Philadelphia 1920-1940', in Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia 1830-1940 (Philadelphia: Ishi Publications, 1983), pp. 276-89).
128. Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Philadelphia politics of the period provide an exception: among virtually all ethnic groups, including Jews, the higher the socio-economic status, the higher the Democratic vote (see John L. Shover, 'Ethnicity and Religion in Philadelphia Politics, 1924-40', American Quarterly, 25 (1973), 508-9). This may have been due to the particular history of the Republican Party in Philadelphia (see Sandra Featherman, 'Jewish Politics in Philadelphia 1920-1940', in Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia 1830-1940 (Philadelphia: Ishi Publications, 1983), pp. 276-89).
129. Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Philadelphia politics of the period provide an exception: among virtually all ethnic groups, including Jews, the higher the socio-economic status, the higher the Democratic vote (see John L. Shover, 'Ethnicity and Religion in Philadelphia Politics, 1924-40', American Quarterly, 25 (1973), 508-9). This may have been due to the particular history of the Republican Party in Philadelphia (see Sandra Featherman, 'Jewish Politics in Philadelphia 1920-1940', in Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia 1830-1940 (Philadelphia: Ishi Publications, 1983), pp. 276-89).
130. Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 134; Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 359. Philadelphia politics of the period provide an exception: among virtually all ethnic groups, including Jews, the higher the socio-economic status, the higher the Democratic vote (see John L. Shover, 'Ethnicity and Religion in Philadelphia Politics, 1924-40', American Quarterly, 25 (1973), 508-9). This may have been due to the particular history of the Republican Party in Philadelphia (see Sandra Featherman, 'Jewish Politics in Philadelphia 1920-1940', in Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia 1830-1940 (Philadelphia: Ishi Publications, 1983), pp. 276-89).
131. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, p. 140.
132. See Fuchs, Political Behavior of American Jews, pp. 64-76.
133. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, chap. 3. As a factor explaining the Jewish-liberal nexus, Roosevelt's opposition to Nazism can be overdrawn (for example, Campbell et al., The American Voter, pp. 159-60). Evidence suggests that Nazism and immigration policy were not, in the 1930s, prime concerns among important segments of American Jewry - even when, as happened in 1935, Jewish clergy were invited by Roosevelt to communicate their views directly. See Monroe Billington and Cal Clark, 'Rabbis and the New Deal: Clues to Jewish Political Behavior', American Jewish History, 80 (1990-91), 193-212, at p. 198.
134. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, chap. 3. As a factor explaining the Jewish-liberal nexus, Roosevelt's opposition to Nazism can be overdrawn (for example, Campbell et al., The American Voter, pp. 159-60). Evidence suggests that Nazism and immigration policy were not, in the 1930s, prime concerns among important segments of American Jewry - even when, as happened in 1935, Jewish clergy were invited by Roosevelt to communicate their views directly. See Monroe Billington and Cal Clark, 'Rabbis and the New Deal: Clues to Jewish Political Behavior', American Jewish History, 80 (1990-91), 193-212, at p. 198.
135. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, chap. 3. As a factor explaining the Jewish-liberal nexus, Roosevelt's opposition to Nazism can be overdrawn (for example, Campbell et al., The American Voter, pp. 159-60). Evidence suggests that Nazism and immigration policy were not, in the 1930s, prime concerns among important segments of American Jewry - even when, as happened in 1935, Jewish clergy were invited by Roosevelt to communicate their views directly. See Monroe Billington and Cal Clark, 'Rabbis and the New Deal: Clues to Jewish Political Behavior', American Jewish History, 80 (1990-91), 193-212, at p. 198.
136. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, pp. 142-3. Emphases in the original.
137. Lawrence H. Fuchs, 'American Jews and the Presidential Vote', American Political Science Review, 49 (1955), 385-401, at p. 392; Gerhard Lenski, The Religious Factor, rev. edn (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), pp. 145-6; David Singer, American Jews as Voters: The 1986 Elections (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1987); Leonard Fein, Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), pp. 230, 275.
138. Lawrence H. Fuchs, 'American Jews and the Presidential Vote', American Political Science Review, 49 (1955), 385-401, at p. 392; Gerhard Lenski, The Religious Factor, rev. edn (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), pp. 145-6; David Singer, American Jews as Voters: The 1986 Elections (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1987); Leonard Fein, Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), pp. 230, 275.
139. Lawrence H. Fuchs, 'American Jews and the Presidential Vote', American Political Science Review, 49 (1955), 385-401, at p. 392; Gerhard Lenski, The Religious Factor, rev. edn (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), pp. 145-6; David Singer, American Jews as Voters: The 1986 Elections (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1987); Leonard Fein, Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), pp. 230, 275.
140. Lawrence H. Fuchs, 'American Jews and the Presidential Vote', American Political Science Review, 49 (1955), 385-401, at p. 392; Gerhard Lenski, The Religious Factor, rev. edn (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), pp. 145-6; David Singer, American Jews as Voters: The 1986 Elections (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1987); Leonard Fein, Where Are We? The Inner Life of America's Jews (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), pp. 230, 275.
141. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, p. 142. Emphases in the original.
142. See Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 160-1.
143. See Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 160-1.
144. Ginsberg, Jews and the State, pp. 143, 140.
145. Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites'; Lipset and Ladd, 'Jewish Academics in the United States'.
146. Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites'; Lipset and Ladd, 'Jewish Academics in the United States'.
147. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 25, 43-6; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 158-9; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
148. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 25, 43-6; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 158-9; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
149. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 25, 43-6; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 158-9; Wald, Religion and Politics, chap. 4.
150. Stanley and Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, pp. 104, 107.
151. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 39; Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', pp. 346-7; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 154.
152. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 39; Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', pp. 346-7; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 154.
153. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 39; Fisher, 'Continuity and Erosion of Jewish Liberalism', pp. 346-7; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', p. 154.
154. Marshall Sklare and Joseph Greenblum, Jewish Identity on the Suburban Frontier (New York: Basic Books, 1967), p. 322.
155. Cited in Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 32-3. See also Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, p. 97.
156. Cited in Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 32-3. See also Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, p. 97.
157. Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, p. 139.
158. Even at the 'micro' level, Medding's theory suffers from being too vague. All Jewish political behaviour is assumed to be governed by the exercise of Jewish political interests, and virtually everything is a Jewish political interest, from economic concerns to Jewish culture. Assumed, too, is a compatibility among and between these sorts of interests that does not always, if ever, obtain. Thus, with the partial exception of the concern for Israel, there is no specification how Jews will respond when the political options available mean that their political interests are in conflict.
159. A less formal interest-based explanation of American Jewish liberalism contends that most Jews 'remained liberals, at very least, because they feared social disorder', specifically from blacks. See Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America: Four Centuries of an Uneasy Encounter: A History (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), pp. 378-9. The greatest perceived threat is from below, in Medding's terms, but Jews respond politically not inversely to the direction of the threat; they align with the threat, seeking to defuse it. As a partial account of a complex of motivations, this argument may have some force. Nevertheless, this version of the Jewish political-interest model fails as a general explanation of American Jewish liberalism for at least the following three reasons: it says little about why Jews were such strong liberals prior to the politicization of the black community; it ignores countervailing threats from other social and political quarters, as stressed by Medding; and it fails to address why most Jews are also liberal on social issues, as distinct from economic and political dimensions.
160. Lenski, The Religious Factor; Gerhard Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote: A Four Nation Test', American Sociological Review, 32 (1967), 298-301; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969); Robert Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Dover, 1959 [1913]); Wald, Religion and Politics.
161. Lenski, The Religious Factor; Gerhard Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote: A Four Nation Test', American Sociological Review, 32 (1967), 298-301; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969); Robert Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Dover, 1959 [1913]); Wald, Religion and Politics.
162. Lenski, The Religious Factor; Gerhard Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote: A Four Nation Test', American Sociological Review, 32 (1967), 298-301; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969); Robert Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Dover, 1959 [1913]); Wald, Religion and Politics.
163. Lenski, The Religious Factor; Gerhard Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote: A Four Nation Test', American Sociological Review, 32 (1967), 298-301; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969); Robert Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Dover, 1959 [1913]); Wald, Religion and Politics.
164. Lenski, The Religious Factor; Gerhard Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote: A Four Nation Test', American Sociological Review, 32 (1967), 298-301; Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969); Robert Michels, Political Parties, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Dover, 1959 [1913]); Wald, Religion and Politics.
165. Lenski, 'Status Inconsistency and the Vote', p. 298.
166. See, for example, David R. Segal, 'Status Inconsistency, Cross Pressures, and American Political Behavior', American Sociological Review, 34 (1969), 352-9.
167. Marvin E. Olsen and Judy Corder Tully, 'Socioeconomic-Ethnic Status Inconsistency and Preference for Political Change', American Sociological Review, 37 (1972), 560-74, at p. 572.
168. James A. Davis, 'Achievement Variables and Class Cultures: Family, Schooling, Job, and Forty-Nine Dependent Variables in the Cumulative GSS', American Sociological Review 47 (1982) 569-86.
169. See, for example, John H. Simpson, 'Status Inconsistency and Moral Issues', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 24 (1985), 115-62; Michael Wood and Michael Hughes, 'The Moral Basis of Moral Reform: Status Discontent vs. Culture and Socialization as Explanations of Anti-Pornography Social Movement Adherence', American Sociological Review, 49 (1984), 86-99.
170. See, for example, John H. Simpson, 'Status Inconsistency and Moral Issues', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 24 (1985), 115-62; Michael Wood and Michael Hughes, 'The Moral Basis of Moral Reform: Status Discontent vs. Culture and Socialization as Explanations of Anti-Pornography Social Movement Adherence', American Sociological Review, 49 (1984), 86-99.
171. Kenneth D. Wald, Dennis E. Owen and Samuel S. Hill Jr, 'Evangelical Politics and Status Issues', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 28 (1989), 1-16, at p. 1.
172. Edgar Litt, 'Ethnic Status and Political Perspectives', Midwest Journal of Political Science 5 (1961), 276-83, at pp. 278-80.
173. Schneider et al., 'Bloc Voting Reconsidered', p. 179.
174. See, for example, Robert S. Wistrich, Revolutionary Jews From Marx to Trotsky (London and New York: Harrap, Barnes and Noble, 1976).
175. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites'; Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew.
176. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites'; Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew.
177. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites'; Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew.
178. Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, pp. 157-8.
179. Everett V. Stonequist, 'The Marginal Character of the Jews' in Isacque Graeber and Steuart Henderson Britt, eds, Jews in a Gentile World: The Problem of Anti-Semitism (New York: Macmillan, 1942), pp. 296-310, esp. at p. 307.
180. Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, pp. 145-72. See also Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 118-19, 347-9.
181. Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, pp. 145-72. See also Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 118-19, 347-9.
182. Robert E. Park, 'Introduction', in Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man: A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1937), pp. xiii-xviii. '
183. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians and Irish of New York City (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970); Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Cf. Charles S. Liebman, Deceptive Images: Toward a Redefinition of American Judaism (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 85.
184. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians and Irish of New York City (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970); Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Cf. Charles S. Liebman, Deceptive Images: Toward a Redefinition of American Judaism (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 85.
185. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians and Irish of New York City (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970); Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Cf. Charles S. Liebman, Deceptive Images: Toward a Redefinition of American Judaism (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 85.
186. Seymour Martin Lipset, 'A Unique People in an Exceptional Country', in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., American Pluralism and the Jewish Community (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1990), pp. 3-29, esp. at p. 8.
187. Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, The American Jewish Experience and American Pluralism: A Comparative Perspective', in Lipset, American Pluralism and the Jewish Community, pp. 43-52, esp. at p. 50.
188. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey, pp. 28-34; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 80-145; Gary A. Tobin with Sharon L. Sassler, Jewish Perceptions of Antisemitism (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 263-74. Cf. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), chap. 11: 'Despite well-publicized outbursts of black antisemitism in New York in the summer and fall of 1992, American Jews have never been more prosperous, more secure, and more "at home in America" than they are today' (p. 228).
189. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey, pp. 28-34; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 80-145; Gary A. Tobin with Sharon L. Sassler, Jewish Perceptions of Antisemitism (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 263-74. Cf. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), chap. 11: 'Despite well-publicized outbursts of black antisemitism in New York in the summer and fall of 1992, American Jews have never been more prosperous, more secure, and more "at home in America" than they are today' (p. 228).
190. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey, pp. 28-34; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 80-145; Gary A. Tobin with Sharon L. Sassler, Jewish Perceptions of Antisemitism (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 263-74. Cf. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), chap. 11: 'Despite well-publicized outbursts of black antisemitism in New York in the summer and fall of 1992, American Jews have never been more prosperous, more secure, and more "at home in America" than they are today' (p. 228).
191. Cohen, The 1984 National Survey, pp. 28-34; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, pp. 80-145; Gary A. Tobin with Sharon L. Sassler, Jewish Perceptions of Antisemitism (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 263-74. Cf. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), chap. 11: 'Despite well-publicized outbursts of black antisemitism in New York in the summer and fall of 1992, American Jews have never been more prosperous, more secure, and more "at home in America" than they are today' (p. 228).
192. On radicalism, see, for example, Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism; and Adam M. Weisberger, 'Marginality and Messianism: German Jews and Socialism, 1871-1918', Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 225-56.
193. On radicalism, see, for example, Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism; and Adam M. Weisberger, 'Marginality and Messianism: German Jews and Socialism, 1871-1918', Politics and Society, 20 (1992), 225-56.
194. Naomi W. Cohen, Encounter With Emancipation: The German Jews in the United States 1830-1914 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1984), pp. 129-58.
195. Simran Bhargava, 'Joy Cherian on the Job: A Voice for Indian-Americans', India Today, 31 (August 1990), p. 81; Arthur W. Helweg and Usha M. Helweg, An Immigrant Success Story: East Indians in America (London: Hurst, 1990), pp. 70-5, 109-11, 146-7.
196. Simran Bhargava, 'Joy Cherian on the Job: A Voice for Indian-Americans', India Today, 31 (August 1990), p. 81; Arthur W. Helweg and Usha M. Helweg, An Immigrant Success Story: East Indians in America (London: Hurst, 1990), pp. 70-5, 109-11, 146-7.
197. Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, pp. 113-14.
198. Michael Parenti, 'Political Values and Religious Cultures: Jews, Catholics, and Protestants', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 6 (1967), 259-69, at pp. 261 -2. For another perceptive discussion of the similarities and differences between the American Catholic and Jewish experiences, see Edgar Litt, Beyond Pluralism: Ethnic Politics in America (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1970), chaps 7 and 8.
199. Michael Parenti, 'Political Values and Religious Cultures: Jews, Catholics, and Protestants', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 6 (1967), 259-69, at pp. 261 -2. For another perceptive discussion of the similarities and differences between the American Catholic and Jewish experiences, see Edgar Litt, Beyond Pluralism: Ethnic Politics in America (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1970), chaps 7 and 8.
200. See Leon S. Chorbajian, 'Armenians and Middle-Eastern Americans', in Joseph S. Roucek and Bernard Eisenberg, eds, America's Ethnic Politics (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press 1982) pp. 67-88.
201. Robert Mirak, 'Armenians', in Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 136-49.
202. Mirak, 'Armenians', p. 146.
203. For a 'scattershot' approach to explaining why American Jews are 'still on the left' - invoking Jewish ('tribal') values, historical alignments, legacy of immigrant socialism, current political interests, defensive needs, and habit - see Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, Jews and the New American Scene (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 6.
204. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 147-9; Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, p. 179.
205. Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 147-9; Liebman and Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism, p. 179.
206. See Don Feder, 'Liberalism Threatens Jewish Identity', Human Events, No. 22, 50 (June 1994), p. 17; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 153-79: Irving Kristol, The Political Dilemma of American Jews', Commentary, 78 (July 1984), 23-9; and Jerome S. Legge Jr, 'Explaining Jewish Liberalism in the United States: An Exploration of Socioeconomic, Religious, and Communal Living Variables', Social Science Quarterly, 76 (1995), 124-41.
207. See Don Feder, 'Liberalism Threatens Jewish Identity', Human Events, No. 22, 50 (June 1994), p. 17; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 153-79: Irving Kristol, The Political Dilemma of American Jews', Commentary, 78 (July 1984), 23-9; and Jerome S. Legge Jr, 'Explaining Jewish Liberalism in the United States: An Exploration of Socioeconomic, Religious, and Communal Living Variables', Social Science Quarterly, 76 (1995), 124-41.
208. See Don Feder, 'Liberalism Threatens Jewish Identity', Human Events, No. 22, 50 (June 1994), p. 17; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 153-79: Irving Kristol, The Political Dilemma of American Jews', Commentary, 78 (July 1984), 23-9; and Jerome S. Legge Jr, 'Explaining Jewish Liberalism in the United States: An Exploration of Socioeconomic, Religious, and Communal Living Variables', Social Science Quarterly, 76 (1995), 124-41.
209. See Don Feder, 'Liberalism Threatens Jewish Identity', Human Events, No. 22, 50 (June 1994), p. 17; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 153-79: Irving Kristol, The Political Dilemma of American Jews', Commentary, 78 (July 1984), 23-9; and Jerome S. Legge Jr, 'Explaining Jewish Liberalism in the United States: An Exploration of Socioeconomic, Religious, and Communal Living Variables', Social Science Quarterly, 76 (1995), 124-41.
210. A recent study employing linear structural relations analysis finds, for example, that denomination, religious practice and communal living variables outperform socio-economic variables in explaining variance in Jewish liberalism. See Legge, 'Explaining Jewish Liberalism in the United States'. This study is based, however, on only one indicator of Jewish liberalism, namely, ideological self-identification, and its linear analysis precludes detection of patterns of differentiation associated with any given variable.
211. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 160-73; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; and Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties (New York: John Wiley, 1966).
212. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 160-73; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; and Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties (New York: John Wiley, 1966).
213. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 160-73; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; and Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties (New York: John Wiley, 1966).
214. Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, pp. 58-9; Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 160-73; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; and Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties (New York: John Wiley, 1966).
215. See, for example, Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, pp. 145-7.
216. See Gordon W. Allport, The Religious Context of Prejudice', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 5 (1966), 447-57; and Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 347-50. Cf. Mary T. Hanna, Catholics and American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979). pp. 121, 137.
217. See Gordon W. Allport, The Religious Context of Prejudice', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 5 (1966), 447-57; and Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 347-50. Cf. Mary T. Hanna, Catholics and American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979). pp. 121, 137.
218. See Gordon W. Allport, The Religious Context of Prejudice', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 5 (1966), 447-57; and Wald, Religion and Politics, pp. 347-50. Cf. Mary T. Hanna, Catholics and American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979). pp. 121, 137.
219. See, for example, Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 138; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 33. Many Jews identify as Jews without being either religiously observant or involved in the Jewish community.
220. See, for example, Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 138; Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 33. Many Jews identify as Jews without being either religiously observant or involved in the Jewish community.
221. It is worth noting, here, that American Jews are found to have a strong and accurate sense of their position along the Orthodox-secular continuum. See, for example, Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 144; and Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 56-7.
222. It is worth noting, here, that American Jews are found to have a strong and accurate sense of their position along the Orthodox-secular continuum. See, for example, Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 144; and Heilman and Cohen, Cosmopolitans and Parochials, pp. 56-7.
223. See Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 144; and Goldstein, 'Profile of American Jewry', pp. 172-3. Goldstein reports (p. 143) that, of the core Jewish population (based on the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey), 76.3 per cent are Jews by religion ('born Jewish and identified as being Jewish by religion'), 20.3 per cent are secular Jews ('born Jewish reporting no current religious identity'), and 3.4 per cent are Jews by choice ('born non-Jews but identified as Jewish by religion'). Even modest proportions of secular Jews always or usually observe some Jewish ritual practices.
224. See Cohen, American Modernity and Jewish Identity, p. 144; and Goldstein, 'Profile of American Jewry', pp. 172-3. Goldstein reports (p. 143) that, of the core Jewish population (based on the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey), 76.3 per cent are Jews by religion ('born Jewish and identified as being Jewish by religion'), 20.3 per cent are secular Jews ('born Jewish reporting no current religious identity'), and 3.4 per cent are Jews by choice ('born non-Jews but identified as Jewish by religion'). Even modest proportions of secular Jews always or usually observe some Jewish ritual practices.
225. See, for example, Lipset, Political Man, p. 223; Medding, 'Towards a General Theory'.
226. See, for example, Lipset, Political Man, p. 223; Medding, 'Towards a General Theory'.
227. See Robert J. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia and Russian Marxism: A Sociological Study of Intellectual Radicalism and Ideological Divergence (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 2; Leonard Schapiro, Russian Studies (New York: Viking, 1987), pp. 45-52; Henry J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia: From Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1972), pp. 25, 37, 47, 98, 140, 238-41.
228. See Robert J. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia and Russian Marxism: A Sociological Study of Intellectual Radicalism and Ideological Divergence (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 2; Leonard Schapiro, Russian Studies (New York: Viking, 1987), pp. 45-52; Henry J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia: From Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1972), pp. 25, 37, 47, 98, 140, 238-41.
229. See Robert J. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia and Russian Marxism: A Sociological Study of Intellectual Radicalism and Ideological Divergence (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 2; Leonard Schapiro, Russian Studies (New York: Viking, 1987), pp. 45-52; Henry J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia: From Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1972), pp. 25, 37, 47, 98, 140, 238-41.
230. Arthur Liebman, Jews and the Left (New York: John Wiley, 1979), p. 1.
231. Liebman's marginality argument is something of an exception, since he wants to argue that Jewish support of state welfare and civil liberties essentially derives from their commitment to church-state separation (Liebman, Ambivalent American Jew, pp. 150-2). Such reductionism seems to raise its own problems, however. Ginsberg's institutional account might also be considered an exception, but only in virtue of its concession that the social liberalism of Jews may have more to do with such non-institutional factors as marginality and minority status.
232. For the data, see Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 58; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 155-62; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', p. 342.
233. For the data, see Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 58; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 155-62; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', p. 342.
234. For the data, see Cohen, Dimensions of American Jewish Liberalism, p. 58; Ladd, 'Jewish Life in the United States', pp. 155-62; Lerner et al., 'Marginality and Liberalism Among Jewish Elites', p. 342.
235. I attempt to develop an account of disproportionate Jewish liberalism along the lines suggested here in Geoffrey Brahm Levey, 'Toward a Theory of Disproportionate American Jewish Liberalism', in Peter Y. Medding, ed., Studies in Contemporary Jewry, Vol. 11: Jews and Politics at the End of the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).