Ecology of terrestrial fungal entomopathogens

Advances in Microbial Ecology

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 193-249

  Hajek, Ann E ^a  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042351259     PISSN: 01474863     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (257)

1. Alexopoulos, C. J., Mims, C. W., and Blackwell, M., 1996, Introductory Mycology, Fourth Edition, Wiley, New York.
2. Allee, L. L., Goettel, M. S., Gol'berg, A., Whitney, H. S., and Roberts, D. W., 1990, Infection by Beauveria bassiana of Leptinotarsa decemlineata larvae as a consequence of fecal contamination of the integument following per os inoculation, Mycopathologia 111:17-24.
3. Anderson, S. O., 1979, Biochemistry of insect cuticle, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 24:29-61.
4. Andreadis, T. G., and Weseloh, R. M., 1990, Discovery of Entomophaga maimaiga in North American gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:2461-2465.
5. Aoki, J., 1974, Mixed infection of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar japonica Motschulsky (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), in a larch forest by Entomophaga aulicae (Reich.) Sorok. and Paecilomyces canadensis (Vuill.) Brown et Smith, Appl. Ent. Zool. 9:185-190.
6. Bajan, C., and Kmitowa, K., 1972, Successive infection, Ekol. Pol. 20:433-440.
7. Baltensweiler, W., and Cerutti, F., 1986, Bericht über die nebenwirkungen einer bekämpfung des maikäfers (Melolontha melolontha L.) mit dem pilz Beauveria brongniartii (Sacc.) Petch auf die arthropodenfauna des waldrandes, Mitt. Schweiz. Entomol. Gesell. 59:267-274.
8. Barbercheck, M. E., and Kaya, H. K., 1990, Interactions between Beauveria bassiana and the entomogenous nematodes, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis heliothidis, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55:225-234.
9. Beauvais, A., Latgé, J.-P., Vey, A., and Prevost, M.-C., 1989, The role of surface components of the entomopathogenic fungus Entomophaga aulicae in the cellular immune response of Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera), J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:489-498.
10. Bellini, R., Mullens, B. A., and Jespersen, J. B., 1992, Infectivity of two members of the Entomophthora muscae complex (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) for Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae), Entomophaga 37:11-19.
11. Ben-Ze'ev, I. S., Bitton, S., and Kenneth, R. G., 1990, Induction and inhibition of germination of Neozygites fresenii (Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae) zygospores by various time-temperature stimuli, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55:1-10.
12. Berisford, Y. C., and Tsao, C. H., 1975, Appressoria formation by Aspergillus parasiticus on bagworm cuticle, Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 68:1111-1112.
13. Bidochka, M. J., and Hajek, A. E., 1996a, Protoplast plasma membrane glycoproteins in two species of entomophthoralean fungi, Mycol. Res. 100:1094-1098.
14. Bidochka, M. J., and Hajek, A. E., 1996b, A non-permissive entomophthoralean fungal infection increases activation of insect prophenoloxidase, (submitted).
15. Bidochka, M. J., and Khachatourians, G. G., 1987, Hemocytic defense response to the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana in the migratory grasshopper Melanoplus sanguinipes, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 45:151-156.
16. Bidochka, M. J., and Khachatourians, G. G., 1992, Growth of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana on cuticular components from the migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 59:165-173.
17. Boucias, D. G., and Latgé, J.-P., 1988, Nonspecific induction of germination of Conidiobolus obscurus and Nomuraea rileyi with host and non-host cuticle extracts, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 51:168-171.
18. Boucias, D. G., and Pendland, J. C., 1984, Nutritional requirements for conidial germination of several host range pathotypes of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 43:288-292.
19. Boucias, D. G., and Pendland, J. C., 1987, Detection of protease inhibitors in the hemolymph of resistant Anticarsia gemmatalis which are inhibitory to the entomopathogenic fugnus Nomuraea rileyi, Experientia 43:336-339.
20. Boucias, D. G., and Pendland, J. C., 1991, Attachment of mycopathogens to cuticle: The initial event of mycoses in arthropod hosts, in: The Fungal Spore and Disease Initiation in Plants and Animals (G. T. Cole and H. C. Hoch, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 101-128.
21. Boucias, D. G., Bradford, D. L., and Barfield, C. S., 1984, Susceptibility of the velvetbean caterpillar and soybean looper (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to Nomuraea rileyi: Effects of pathotype, dosage, temperature, and host age, J. Econ. Entomol. 77:247-253.
22. Boucias, D. G., Pendland, J. C., and Latgé, J.-P., 1988, Nonspecific factors involved in the attachment of entomopathogenic deuteromycetes to host insect cuticle, Appl. Entomol. Microbiol. 54:1795-1805.
23. Brobyn, P. J., Wilding, N., and Clark, S. J., 1985, The persistence of infectivity of conidia of the aphid pathogen Erynia neoaphidis on leaves in the field, Ann. Appl. Biol. 107:365-376.
24. Brobyn, P. J., Wilding, N., and Clark, S. J., 1987, Laboratory observations on the effect of humidity on the persistence of infectivity of conidia of the aphid pathogen Erynia neoaphidis, Ann. Appl. Biol. 110:579-584.
25. Brooks, W. M., 1993, Host-parasitoid-pathogen interactions, in: Parasites and Pathogens of Insects, Vol. 2: Pathogens (N. E. Beckage, S. N. Thompson, and B. A. Federici, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 231-272.
26. Butt, T. M., and Humber, R. A., 1989, Response of gypsy moth hemocytes to natural fungal protoplasts of three Entomophaga species (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 53:121-123.
27. Butt, T. M., Wraight, S. P., Galaini-Wraight, S., Humber, R. A., Roberts, D. W., and Soper, R. S., 1988, Humoral encapsulation of the fungus Erynia radicans (Entomophthorales) by the potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:59-56.
28. Butt, T. M., Ibrahim, L., Clark, S. J., and Beckett, A., 1995, The germination behaviour of Metarhizium anisopliae on the surface of aphid and flea beetle cuticles, Mycol. Res. 99:945-950.
29. Carroll, G. C., 1991, Fungal associates of woody plants as insect antagonists in leaves and stems, in: Microbial Mediation of Plant-Herbivore Interactions (P. Barbosa, V. A. Krischik, and C. G. Jones, eds.), Wiley, New York, pp. 253-271.
30. Carruthers, R. I., and Haynes, D. L., 1986, Temperature, moisture, and habitat effects on Entomophthora muscae conidial germination and survival in the onion agroecosystem, Environ. Entomol. 15:1154-1160.
31. Carruthers, R. I., and Soper, R. S., 1987, Fungal diseases, in: Epizootiology of Insect Diseases (J. R. Fuxa and Y. Tanada, eds.), Wiley, New York, pp. 357-416.
32. Carruthers, R. I., Feng, Z., Ramos, M. E., and Soper, R. S., 1988, The effect of solar radiation on the survival of Entomophaga grylli (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) conidia, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:154-162.
33. Carruthers, R. I., Larkin, T. S., Firstencel, H., and Feng, Z., 1992, Influence of thermal ecology on the mycosis of a rangeland grasshopper, Ecology 73:190-204.
34. Chamley, A. K., and St. Leger, R. J., 1991, The role of cuticle-degrading enzymes in fungal pathogenesis in insects, in: The Fungal Spore and Disease Initiation in Plants and Animals (G. T. Cole and H. C. Hoch, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 267-286.
35. Clarkson, J. M., and Charnley, A. K., 1995, New insights into the mechanisms of fungal pathogenesis in insects, Tr. Microbiol. 4:197-203.
36. Costa, S. D., and Gaugler, R., 1989, Influence of Solanum host plants on Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) susceptibility to the entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana. Environ. Entomol. 18:531-536.
37. Daoust, R. A., and Pereira, R. M., 1986, Stability of entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae on beetle-attracting tubers and cowpea foliage in Brazil, Environ. Entomol. 15:1237-1243.
38. Daoust, R. A., and Roberts, D. W., 1983, Studies on the prolonged storage of Metarhizium anisopliae conidia: Effect of temperature and relative humidity on conidial viability and virulence against mosquitoes, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 41:143-150.
39. Delalibera, I., Sosa Gomes, D. R., de Moraes, G. J., de Alencar, J. A., and Farias Araujo, W., 1992, Infection of Mononychellus tanajoa (Acari: Tetranychidae) by the fungus Neozygites sp. (Entomophthorales) in northeastern Brazil, Fla. Entomol. 75:145-147.
40. Dickinson, C. H., 1986, Adaptations of micro-organisms to climatic conditions affecting aerial plant surfaces, in: Microbiology of the Phyllosphere (N. J. Fokkema and J. van den Heuvel, eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 77-100.
41. Dillon, R. J., and Charnley, A. K., 1991, The fate of fungal spores in the insect gut, in: The Fungal Spore and Disease Initiation in Plants and Animals (G. T. Cole and H. C. Hoch, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 129-156.
42. Doberski, J. W., and Tribe, H. T., 1980, Isolation of entomogenous fungi from elm bark and soil with reference to ecology of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 74:95-100.
43. Donegan, K., and Lighthart, B., 1989, Effect of several stress factors on the susceptibility of the predatory insect, Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), to the fungal pathogen Beauveria bassiana, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 54:79-84.
44. Eilenberg, J., 1986, Effect of Entomophthora muscae (C.) Fres. on egg-laying behaviour of female carrot-flies (Psila rosae F.), in: Fundamental and Applied Aspects of Invertebrate Pathology (R. A. Samson, J. M. Vlak, and D. Peters, eds.), Foundations of the Fourth International Colloquium Invertebrate Pathology, Wageningen, Netherlands, p. 235.
45. Elkinton, J. S., Hajek, A. E., Boettner, G. H., and Simons, E. E., 1991, Distribution and apparent spread of Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) in gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) population in North America, Environ. Entomol. 20:1601-1605.
46. El-Maghraby, M. M. A., Hebag, A., and Yousif-Khalil, S. I., 1988, Interactions between Bacillus thuringiensis Berl., Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. and the host/parasitoid system Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.)/Microplitis rufiventris Kok., J. Appl. Ent. 106:417-421.
47. Emmett, R. W., and Parbery, D. G., 1975, Appressoria, Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 13:147-167.
48. Evans, H. C., 1989, Mycopathogens of insects of epigeal and aerial habitats, in: Insect-Fungus Interactions (N. Wilding, N. M. Collins, P. M. Hammond, and J. F. Webber, eds.), Academic Press, London, pp. 205-238.
49. Fargues, J., 1984, Adhesion of the fungal spore to the insect cuticle in relation to pathogenicity, in: Infection Processes of Fungi (D. W. Roberts and J. R. Aist, eds.), Rockefeller Foundation Conference Report, pp. 90-110.
50. Fargues, J., and Maniania, J. K., 1992, Variabilité de la sensibilité de Spodoptera littoralis [Lep.: Noctuidae] a l'hyphomycete entomopathogène Nomuraea rileyi. Entomophaga 37:545-554.
51. Fargues, J., Rougier, M., Goujet, R., and Itier, B., 1988, Effet du rayonnement solaire sur la persistance des conidiospores de l'hyphomycète entomopathogène, Nomuraea rileyi, a la surface d'un couvert végétal, Entomophaga 33:357-370.
52. Feng, M. G., and Nowierski, R. M., 1992, Spatial patterns and sampling plans for cereal aphids [Hom: Aphididae] killed by entomophthoralean fungi and hymenopterous parasitoids in spring wheat, Entomophaga 37:265-272.
53. Feng, M. G., Poprawski, T. J., and Khachatourians, G. G., 1994, Production, formulation and application of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana for insect control: current status, Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 4:3-34.
54. Fernandez-Garcia, E., and Fitt, B. D. L., 1993, Dispersal of the entomopathogen Hirsutella cryptosclerotium by simulated rain, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 61:39-43.
55. Ferro, D. N., and Southwick, E. E., 1984, Microclimates of small arthropods: estimating humidity within the leaf boundary layer, Environ. Entomol. 13:926-929.
56. Ferro, D. N., Chapman, R. B., and Penman, D. R., 1979, Observations on insect microclimate and insect pest management, Environ. Entomol. 8:1000-1003.
57. Ferron, P., Fargues, J., and Riba, G., 1991, Fungi as microbial insecticides, in: Handbook of Applied Mycology. Vol. 2: Humans, Animals, and Insects (D. K. Arora, L. Ajello, and K. G. Mukerji, eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 665-706.
58. Fransen, J. J., 1987, Aschersonia aleyrodis as a Microbial Control Agent of Greenhouse Whitefly, Ph.D. dissertation, Agricultural University of Wageningen, Netherlands.
59. Fransen, J. J., and van Lenteren, J. C., 1993, Host selection and survival of the parasitoid Encarsia formosa on greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, in the presence of hosts infected with the fungus Aschersonia aleyrodis, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 69:239-249.
60. Fransen, J. J., and van Lenteren, J. C., 1994, Survival of the parasitoid Encarsia formosa after treatment of parasitized greenhouse whitefly larvae with fungal spores of Aschersonia aleyrodis, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 71:235-243.
61. Führer, E., and El-Sufty, R., 1979, Production of fungistatic metabolites by teratocytes of Apanteles glomeratus L. (Hym., Braconidae), Z. Parasitenkd. 59:21-25.
62. Funk, C. J., Ramoska, W. A., and Bechtel, D. B., 1993, Histopathology of Entomophaga grylli pathotype 2 infections in Melanoplus differentialis, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 61:196-202.
63. Furlong, M. J., and Pell, J. K., 1996, Interactions between the fungal entomopathogen Zoophthora radicans Brefeld (Entomophthorales) and two hymenopteran parasitoids attacking the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L., J. Invertebr. Pathol. 68:15-21.
64. Fuxa, J. R., and Tanada, Y., 1987, Epidemiological concepts applied to insect epizootiology, in: Epizootiology of Insect Diseases, John Wiley, New York, pp. 3-21.
65. Galaini, S., 1984, The Efficacy of Foliar Applications of Beauveria bassiana Conidia against Leptinotarsa decemlineata, M.S. dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
66. Gallardo, F., Boethel, D. J., Fuxa, J. R., and Richter, A., 1990, Susceptibility of Heliothis zea (Boddie) larvae to Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson: Effects of α-tomatine at the third trophic level. J. Chem. Ecol. 16:1751-1759.
67. Garcia, C., and Ignoffo, C. M., 1977, Dislodgement of conidia of Nomuraea rilevi from cadavers of cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 30:114-116.
68. Gardner, W. A., Sutton, R. M., and Noblet, R., 1977, Persistence of Beauveria bassiana, Nomuraea rileyi, and Nosema necatrix on soybean foliage, Environ. Entomol. 5:616-618.
69. Gaugler, R., Costa, S. D., and Lashomb, J., 1989, Stability and efficacy of Beauveria bassiana soil inoculations, Environ. Entomol. 18:412-417.
70. Geden, C. J., Rutz, D. A., and Steinkraus, D. C., 1995, Virulence of different isolates and formulations of Beauveria bassiana for house flies and the parasitoid Muscidifurax raptor, Biol. Control 5:615-621.
71. Gilliam, M., Taber III, S., and Richardson, G. V., 1983, Hygienic behavior of honey bees in relation to chalkbrood disease, Apidologie 14:29-39.
72. Gilliam, M., Taber III, S., Lorenz, B. J., and Prest, D. B., 1988, Factors affecting development of chalkbrood disease in colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera, fed pollen contaminated with Ascosphaera apis, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:314-325.
73. Glare, T. R., and Milner, R. J., 1991, Ecology of entomopathogenic fungi, in: Handbook of Applied Mycology. Vol. 2: Humans, Animals, and Insects (D. K. Arora, L. Ajello, and K. G. Mukerji, eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 547-612.
74. Glare, T. R., Milner, R. J., and Chilvers, G. A., 1986, The effect of environmental factors on the production, discharge, and germination of primary conidia of Zoophthora phalloides Batko, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 48:275-283.
75. Glare, T. R., Milner, R. J., and Chilvers, G. A., 1989, Factors affecting the production of resting spores by Zoophthora radicans in the spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis trifolii f. maculata, Can. J. Bot. 67:848-855.
76. Goettel, M. W., and Inglis, G. D., 1997, Fungi: Hyphomycetes, in: Manual of Techniques in Insect Pathology (L. A. Lacey, ed.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 213-249.
77. Goettel, M. S., St. Leger, R. J., Rizzo, N. W., Staples, R. C., and Roberts, D. W., 1989, Ultrastructural localization of a cuticle-degrading protease produced by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae during penetration of host (Manduca sexta) cuticle, J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:2233-2239.
78. Goettel, M. S., Poprawski, T. J., Vandenberg, J. D., Li, Z., and Roberts, D. W., 1990, Safety to nontarget invertebrates of fungal biocontrol agents, in: Safety of Microbial Insecticides (M. Laird, L. A. Lacey, and E. W. Davidson, eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 209-231.
79. Gopalakrishnan, C., and Narayanan, K., 1989, Epizootiology of Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson in field populations of Helicoverpa (= Heliothis) armigera (Hübner) in relation to three host plants, J. Biol. Contr. 3:50-52.
80. Gottwald, T. R., and Tedders, W. L., 1982, Studies on condia release by the entomogenous fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) from adult pecan weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) cadavers, Environ. Entomol. 11:1274-1279.
81. Gottwald, T. R., and Tedders, W. L., 1984, Colonization, transmission, and longevity of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) on pecan weevil larvae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the soil, Environ. Entomol. 13:557-560.
82. Gregory, P. H., Guthrie, E. J., and Bunce, M. E., 1959, Experiments on splash dispersal of fungus spores, J. Gen. Microbiol. 20:328-354.
83. Groden, E., and Lockwood, J. L., 1991, Effects of soil fungistasis on Beauveria bassiana and its relationship to disease incidence in the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, in Michigan and Rhode Island soils, J. Invertebr. Pathol.57:7-16.
84. Gugnani, H. C., and J. I. Okafor, 1980, Mycotic flora of the intestine and other internal organs of certain reptiles and amphibians with special reference to characterization of Basidiobolus isolates, Mykosen 23:260-268.
85. Hajek, A. E., 1989, Food consumption by Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) larvae injected with Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), Environ. Entomol. 18:723-727.
86. Hajek, A. E., 1993, New options for insect control using fungi, in: Pest Management: Biologically Based Technologies (R. D. Lumsden and J. L. Vaughn, eds.), American Chemical Society, pp. 54-62.
87. Hajek, A. E., 1995, Persistence of Entomophaga maimaiga in the environment, Proc. U.S. Dept. Agric. Interagency Gypsy Moth Res. Forum, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, General Technical Report NE-213, p. 73.
88. Hajek, A. E., 1997, Entomophaga maimaiga reproductive output determined by spore type initiating infection, Mycol. Res. (in press).
89. Hajek, A. E., and Roberts, D. W., 1991, Pathogen reservoirs as a biological control resource: Introduction of Entomophaga maimaiga to North American gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, populations, Biol. Contr. 1:29-34.
90. Hajek, A. E., and Roberts, D. W., 1992, Field diagnosis of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) larval mortality caused by Entomophaga maimaiga and the gypsy moth nuclear polyhedrosis virus, Environ. Entomol. 21:706-713.
91. Hajek, A. E., and St. Leger, R. J., 1994, Interactions between fungal pathogens and insect hosts, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 39:293-322.
92. Hajek, A.E., and Shimazu, M., 1996, Types of spores produced by Entomophaga maimaiga infecting the gypsy moth Lymantria dispar, Can. J. Bot. 74:708-715.
93. Hajek, A. E., and Soper, R. S., 1992, Temporal dynamics of Entomophaga maimaiga after death of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) larval hosts, Environ. Entomol. 21:129-135.
94. Hajek, A. E., and Wheeler, M. M., 1994, Application of techniques for quantification of soil-borne entomophthoralean resting spores, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64:71-73.
95. Hajek, A. E., Carruthers, R. I., and Soper, R. S., 1990a, Temperature and moisture relations of sporulation and germination by Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthoraceae), a fungal pathogen of Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), Environ. Entomol. 19:85-90.
96. Hajek, A. E., Humber, R. A., Elkinton, J. S., May, B., Walsh, S. R. A., and Silver, J. C., 1990b, Allozyme and RFLP analyses confirm Entomophaga maimaiga responsible for 1989 epizootics in North American gypsy moth populations, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:6979-6982.
97. Hajek, A. E., Butt, T. M., Strelow, L. I., and Gray, S. M., 1991a, Detection of Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58:1-9.
98. Hajek, A. E., Humber, R. A., Walsh, S. R. A., and Silver, J. C., 1991b, Sympatric occurrence of two Entomophaga aulicae (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) complex species attacking forest Lepidoptera, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58:373-380.
99. Hajek, A. E., Larkin, T. S., Carruthers, R. I., and Soper, R. S., 1993, Modeling the dynamics of Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) epizootics in gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) populations, Environ. Entomol. 22:1172-1187.
100. Hajek, A. E., Butler, L., and Wheeler, M. M., 1995a, Laboratory bioassays testing the host range of the gypsy moth fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga, Biol. Contr. 5:530-544.
101. Hajek, A. E., Humber, R. A., and Elkinton, J. S., 1995b, Mysterious origin of Entomophaga maimaiga in North America, Amer. Entomol. 41:31-42.
102. Hajek, A. E., Renwick, J. A. A., and Roberts, D. W., 1995c, Effects of larval host plant on the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), Environ. Entomol. 24:1307-1314.
103. Hajek, A. E., Butler, L., Walsh, S. R. A., Silver, J. C., Hain, F. P., Hastings, F. L., O'Dell, T. M., And Smitley, D. R., 1996a, Host range of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) in the field versus laboratory, Environ. Entomol. 25:709-721.
104. Hajek, A. E., Elkinton, J. S., and Witcosky, J. J., 1996b, Introduction and spread of the fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) along the leading edge of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) spread, Environ. Entomol. 25:1235-1247.
105. Hajek, A. E., Hodge, K. T., Liebherr, J. K., Day, W. H., and Vandenberg, J. D., 1996c, Use of RAPD analysis to trace the origin of the weevil pathogen Zoophthora phytonomi in North America, Mycol. Res. 100:349-355.
106. Hall, R. A., 1981, The fungus Verticillium lecanii as a microbial insecticide against aphids and scales, in: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases 1970-1980 (H. D. Burges, ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 483-498.
107. Hall, R. A., and Burges, H. D., 1979, Control of aphids in glasshouses with the fungus, Verticillium lecanii, Ann. Appl. Biol. 93:235-246.
108. Hall, R. A., and Papierok, B., 1982, Fungi as biological control agents of arthropods of agricultural and medical importance, Parasitology 84:205-240.
109. Hare, J. D., and Andreadis, T. G., 1983, Variation in the susceptibility of Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) when reared on different host plants to the fungal pathogen, Beauveria bassiana in the field and laboratory, Environ. Entomol. 12:1892-1897.
110. Harper, J. D., Herbert, D. A., and Moore, R. E., 1984, Trapping patterns of Entomophthora gammae (Weiser) (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) conidia in a soybean field infested with the soybean looper, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Environ. Entomol. 13:1186-1190.
111. Hodge, K. T., Sawyer, A. J., and Humber, R. A., 1995, RAPD-PCR for identification of Zoophthora radicans isolates in biological control of the potato leafhopper, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65:1-9.
112. Holdom, D. G., 1984, Studies on the Biology, Nutrition and Physiology of Entomophthora planchoniana Cornu (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), a Pathogen of the Bluegreen aphid, Acyrthosiphon kondoi Shinji (Homoptera: Aphididae), Ph.D. dissertation, University of Queensland, Australia.
113. Hollingsworth, R. G., Steinkraus, D. C., and McNew, R. W., 1995, Sampling to predict fungal epizootics in cotton aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), Environ. Entomol. 24:1414-1421.
114. Humber, R. A., 1976, The systematics of the genus Strongwellsea (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), Mycologia 68:1042-1060.
115. Humber, R. A., 1992, Collect ion of Entomopathogenic Fungal Cultures: Catalog of Strains, 1992, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. ARS-110.
116. Humber, R. A., 1996, Fungal pathogens of the Chrysomelidae and prospects for their use in biological control, in: Chrysomelidae Biology. Vol. 2: Ecological Studies (P. H. A. Jolivet & M. L. Cox, eds.), Academic Press, Netherlands, pp. 93-115.
117. Hung, S.-Y., and Boucias, D. G., 1992, Influence of Beauveria bassiana on the cellular defense response of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 60:152-158.
118. Hung, S.-Y., Boucias, D. G., and Vey, A., 1993, Effect of Beauveria bassiana and Candida albicans on the cellular defense response of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 61:179-187.
119. Ignoffo, C. M., Hostetter, D. L., Sikorowski, P. P., Sutter, G., and Brooks, W. M., 1977, Inactivation of representative species of entomopathogenic viruses, a bacterium, fungus, and protozoan by an ultraviolet light source, Environ. Entomol. 6:411-415.
120. Ignoffo, C. M., Garcia, C., Hostetter, D. L., and Pinnell, R. E., 1978, Stability of conidia of an entomopathogenic fungus, Nomuraea rileyi, in and on soil, Environ. Entomol. 7:724-727.
121. Iijima, R., Kurata, S., and Natori, S., 1993, Purification, characterization, and cDNA cloning of an antifungal protein from the hemolymph of Sarcophaga peregrina (flesh fly) larvae, J. Biol. Chem. 268:12055-12061.
122. Inglis, G. D., Goettel, M. S., and Johnson, D. L., 1993, Persistence of the entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana, on phylloplanes of crested wheatgrass and alfalfa, Biol. Contr. 3:258-270.
123. Inglis, G. D., Johnson, D. L., and Goettel, M. S., 1995, Effects of simulated rain on the persistence of Beauveria bassiana conidia on leaves of alfalfa and wheat, Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 5:365-369.
124. James, R. R., and Lighthart, B., 1994, Susceptibility of the convergent lady beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to four entomogenous fungi, Environ. Entomol. 23: 190-192.
125. Keller, S., 1983, Die mikrobiologische Bekämpfung des Maikäfers (Melolontha melolontha L.) mit dem Pilz Beauveria brongniartii, Mitt. Schweiz. Landwirtsch. 31:61-64.
126. Keller, S., 1991, Arthropod pathogenic Entomophthorales of Switzerland. II. Erynia, Eryniopsis, Zoophthora, and Tarichium, Sydowia Ann. Mycol. 43:39-122.
127. Keller, S., and Zimmermann, G. 1989. Mycopathogens of soil insects, in: Insect-Fungus Interactions (N. Wilding, N. M. Collins, P. M. Hammond, and J. F. Webber, eds.), Academic Press, London, pp. 240-270.
128. Kenneth, R., Wallis, G., Gerson, U., and Plaut, H. N., 1972, Observations and experiments on Triplosporium floridanum (Entomophthorales) attacking spider mites in Israel, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 19:366-369.
129. Kerwin, J. L., 1984, Fatty acid regulation of the germination of Erynia variabilis conidia on adults and puparia of the lesser housefly, Fannia canicularis, Can. J. Microbiol. 30:158-161.
130. Khachatourians, G. G., 1991, Physiology and genetics of entomopathogenic fungi, in: Handbook of Applied Mycology. Vol. 2: Humans, Animals, and Insects (D. K. Arora, L. Ajello, and K. G. Mukerji, eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 613-663.
131. King, D. S., and Humber, R. A., 1981, Identification of the Entomophthorales, in: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases 1970-1980 (H. D. Burges, ed.), Academic Press, London, pp. 107-127.
132. King, E. G., and Bell, J. V., 1978, Interactions between a braconid, Microplitis croceipes, and a fungus, Nomuraea rileyi, in laboratory-reared bollworm larvae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 31:337-340.
133. Kish, L. P, and Allen, G. E., 1978, The biology and ecology of Nomuraea rileyi and a program for predicting its incidence on Anticarsia gemmatalis in soybean, Florida Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 795.
134. Knudsen, G. R., Schotzko, D. J., and Krag, C. R., 1994, Fungal entomopathogen effect on numbers and spatial patterns of the Russian wheat aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) on preferred and nonpreferred host plants, Environ. Entomol. 23:1558-1567.
135. Kramer, J. P., 1980, The housefly mycosis caused by Entomophthora muscae: Influences of relative humidity on infectivity and conidial germination, J. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 88:236-240.
136. Krasnoff, S. B., Watson, D. W., Gibson, D. M., and Kwan, E. C., 1995, Behavioral effects of the entomopathogenic fungus Entomophthora muscae on its host Musca domestica: postural changes in dying hosts and gated pattern of mortality, J. Ins. Physiol. 41:895-903.
137. Krejzova, R., 1971, Resistance and germinability of resting spores of some species of the genus Entomophthora, Ceska Mykol. 25:231-238.
138. Krieg, A., 1971, Interactions between pathogens, in: Microbial Control of Insects and Mites (H. D. Burges, and N. W. Hussey, eds.), Academic Press, London, pp. 459-468.
139. Krueger, S. R., Nechols, J. R., and Ramoska, W. A., 1991a, Infection of chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus leucopterus (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), adults from Beauveria bassiana (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) conidia in soil under controlled temperature and moisture conditions, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58:19-26.
140. Krueger, S. R., Villani, M. G., Nyrop, J. P., and Roberts, D. W., 1991b, Effect of soil environment on the efficacy of fungal pathogens against scarab grubs in laboratory bioassays, Biol. Control 1:203-209.
141. Latgé J.-P., Sampedro, L., Brey, P., and Diaquin, M., 1987, Aggressiveness of Conidiobolus obscurus against the pea aphid: Influence of cuticular extracts on ballistospore germination of aggressive and non-aggressive strains, J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:1987-1997.
142. Latteur, G., 1980, The persistence of infectivity of conidia of Entomophthora obscura at different temperatures on the surface of unsterilized soil, Acta Oecol., Oecol. Applic. 1:29-34.
143. Latteur, G., Destain, J., Oger, R., and Godefroid, J., 1982, Ètude de la production de conidies par les spores durables de Conidiobolus obscurus (Hall et Dunn) Remaud. et Kell., une entomophthorale pathogène de pucerons, Parasitica 38:139-161.
144. Leach, C. M., 1971, A practical guide to the effects of visible and ultraviolet light on fungi, in: Methods in Microbiology, Vol. 4 (C. Booth, ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 609-664.
145. Li, Z., Soper, R. S., and Hajek, A. E., 1988, A method for recovering resting spores of Entomophthorales (Zygomycetes) from soil, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:18-26.
146. Li, Z., Butt, T. M., Beckett, A., and Wilding, N., 1993, The structure of dry mycelia of the entomophthoralean fungi Zoophthora radicans and Erynia neoaphidis following different preparatory treatments, Mycol. Res. 97:1315-1323.
147. Lloyd, M., White, J., and Stanton, N., 1982, Dispersal of fungus-infected periodical cicadas to new habitat, Environ. Entomol. 11:852-858.
148. MacDonald, R. M., and Spokes, J. R., 1981, Conidiobolus obscurus in arable soil: a method for extracting and counting azygospores, Soil Biol. Biochem. 13:551-553.
149. Magalhaes, B. P., Lord, J. C., Wraight, S. P., Daoust, R. A., and Roberts, D. W., 1988, Pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana and Zoophthora radicans to the coccinellid predators Coleomegilla maculata and Eriopis connexa, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:471-473.
150. Magalhaes, B. P., Humber, R. A., Shields, E. J., and Roberts, D. W., 1991a, Effects of environment and nutrition on conidium germination and appressorium formation by Zoophthora radicans (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales): a pathogen of the potato leafhopper (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), Environ. Entomol. 20:1460-1468.
151. Magalhaes, B. P., Wayne, R., Humber, R. A., Shields, E. J., and Roberts, D. W., 1991b, Calcium-regulated appressorium formation of the entomopathogenic fungus Zoophthora radicans, Protoplasma 160:77-88.
152. Mazet, I., Hung, S.-Y., and Boucias, D. G., 1994, Detection of toxic metabolites in the hemolymph of Beauveria bassiana-infected Spodoptera exigua larvae, Experientia 50:142-147.
153. McCoy, C. W., Samson, R. A., and Boucias, D. G. 1988, Entomogenous fungi, in: Handbook of Natural Pesticides, Vol. 5, Microbial Insecticides, Part A (C. M. Ignoffo, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 151-236.
154. McDonald, D. M., and Nolan, R. A., 1995, Effect of relative humidity and temperature on Entomophaga aulicae conidium discharged from infected eastern hemlock looper larvae and subsequent conidium development, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65:83-90.
155. McGuire, M. R., 1985, Erynia radicans: Studies on its Distribution, Pathogenicity, and Host Range in relation to Potato Leafhopper, Empoasca fabae, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
156. McGuire, M. R., Maddox, J. V., and Armbrust, E. J., 1987, Host range studies of an Erynia radicans strain (Zygomycetes: Entomophthoraceae) isolated from Empoasca fabae (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 50:75-77.
157. Mills, N. J., 1981, The mortality and fat content of Adalia bipunctata during hibernation, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 30:265-268.
158. Millstein, J. A., Brown, G. C., and Nordin, G. L., 1982, Microclimatic humidity influence on conidial discharge in Erynia sp. (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae), an entomopathogenic fungus of the alfalfa weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Environ. Entomol. 11:1166-1169.
159. Millstein, J. A., Brown, G. C., and Nordin, G. L., 1983, Microclimatic moisture and conidial production in Erynia sp. (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae): In vivo production rate and duration under constant and fluctuating moisture regimes, Environ. Entomol. 12:1344-1349.
160. Milner, R. J., 1981, Patterns of primary spore discharge of Entomophthora spp. from the blue green aphid, Acyrthosiphon kondoi, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 38:419-425.
161. Milner, R. J., 1982, On the occurrence of pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon
162. Milner, R. J., 1985, Distribution in time and space of resistance to the pathogenic fungus Erynia neoaphidis in the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 37:235-240.
163. Milner, R. J., and Lutton, G. G., 1986, Dependence of Verticillium lecanii (Fungi: Hyphomycetes) on high humidities for infection and sporulation using Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) as host, Environ. Entomol. 15:380-382.
164. Milner, R. J., and Soper, R. S., 1981, Bioassay of Entomophthora against the spotted alfalfa aphid Therioaphis trifolii f. maculata, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 37:168-173.
165. Milner, R. J., Soper, R. S., and Lutton, G. G., 1982, Field release of an Israeli strain of the fungus Zoophthora radicans (Brefeld) Batko for biological control of Therioaphis trifolii (Monell) f. maculata, J. Aust. Ent. Soc. 21:113-118.
166. Milner, R. J., Holdom, D. G., and Glare, T. R., 1984, Diurnal patterns of mortality in aphids infected by entomophthoran fungi, Entomol. Exp. Appl. 36:37-42.
167. Møller, A. P., 1993, A fungus infecting domestic flies manipulates sexual behaviour of its host, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 33:403-407.
168. Morgan, L. W., Boddy, L., and Wilding, N., 1992, The survival and germination of Erynia neoaphidis conidia, Proc. 25th Ann. Mtg. Soc. Invertebr. Pathol., Heidelberg, Germany, p. 220.
169. Morgan, L. W., Boddy, L., Clark, S. J., and Wilding, N., 1995, Influence of temperature on germination of primary and secondary conidia of Erynia neoaphidis (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65:132-138.
170. Mullens, B. A., and Rodriguez, J. L., 1985, Dynamics of Entomophthora muscae (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) conidial discharge from Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) cadavers, Environ. Entomol. 14:317-322.
171. Nadeau, M. P., Dunphy, G. B., and Boisvert, J. L., 1996, Development of Erynia conica (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) on the cuticle of the adult black flies Simulium rostratum and Simulium decorum (Diptera: Simuliidae), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 68:50-58.
172. Newman, G. G., and Carner, G. R., 1975, An Entomophthora infection of the adult cluster fly Pollenia rudis, J. Ga. Ent. Soc. 10:315-326.
173. Nolan, R. A., Dunphy, G. B., and MacLeod, D. M., 1976, In vitro germination of Entomophthora egressa resting spores, Can. J. Bot. 54:1131-1134.
174. Onstad, D. W., and Carruthers, R. I., 1990, Epizootiological models of insect diseases, Annu. Rev. Entomol. 35:399-419.
175. Oduor, G. I., 1995, Abiotic Factors and the Epizootiology of Neozygites cf. floridana, a Fungus Pathogenic to the Cassava Green Mite, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Holland.
176. Papierok, B., and Hajek, A. E., 1997, Fungi: Entomophthorales, in: Manual of Techniques in Insect Pathology (L. A. Lacey, ed.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 187-212.
177. Papierok, B., and Wilding, N., 1979, Mise en evidence d'une différence de sensibilité entre 2 clones du puceron du pois Acyrthosiphon pisum Harr. (Homoptères: Aphididae), exposé à 2 souches du champignon Phycomycète Entomophthora obscura Hall & Dunn, C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D 288:93-95.
178. Papierok, B., Torres, B. V. L., and Arnault, M., 1984, Contribution a l'étude de la spécificité parasitaire du champignon entomopathogène Zoophthora radicans (Zygomycètes, Entomophthorales), Entomophaga 29:109-119.
179. Pell, J. K., and Wilding, N., 1992, The survival of Zoophthora radicans (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) isolates as hyphal bodies in mummified larvae of Plutella xylostella (Lep.: Yponomeutidae), Entomophaga 37:649-654.
180. Pendland, J. C., 1982, Resistant structures in the entomogenous hyphomycete, Nomuraea rileyi: an ultrastructural study, Can. J. Bot. 60:1569-1576.
181. Pendland, J. C., Heath, M. A., and Boucias, D. G., 1988, Function of a galactose-binding lectin from Spodoptera exigua larval hemolymph: Opsonization of blastospores from entomogenous Hyphomycetes, J. Ins. Physiol. 34:533-540.
182. Pendland, J. C., Hung, S.-Y., and Boucias, D. G., 1993, Evasion of host defense by in vivo-produced protoplast-like cells of the mycopathogen Beauveria bassiana, J. Bacteriol. 175:5962-5969.
183. Pendland, J. C., Hung, S.-Y., and Boucias, D. G., 1995, In vivo development of the entomogenous hyphomycete Paecilomyces farinosus in host Spodoptera exigua (beet armyworm) larvae, Mycopathologia 130:151-158.
184. Perry, D. F., 1988, Germination of Pandora bullata resting spores, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 51:161-162.
185. Perry, D. F., and Fleming, R. A., 1989a, The timing of Erynia radicans resting spore germination in relation to mycosis of Choristoneura fumiferana, Can. J. Bot. 67:1657-1663.
186. Perry, D. F., and Fleming, R. A., 1989b, Erynia crustosa zygospore germination, Mycologia 81:154-158.
187. Perry, D. F., and Latgé, J.-P., 1982, Dormancy and germination of Conidiobolus obscurus azygospores, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 78:221-225.
188. Pickering, J., and Gutierrez, A. P., 1991, Differential impact of the pathogen Pandora neoaphidis (R. & H.) Humber (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) on the species composition of Acyrthosiphon in alfalfa, Can. Entomol. 123:315-310.
189. Powell, W., Wilding, N., Brobyn, P. J., and Clark, S. J., 1986, Interference between parasitoids (Hym.: Aphidiidae) and fungi (Entomophthorales) attacking cereal aphids. Entomophaga 31:293-302.
190. Ramoska, W. A., 1984, The influence of relative humidity on Beauveria bassiana infectivity and replication in the chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 43:389-394.
191. Ramoska, W. A., and Todd, T. 1985, Variation in efficacy and viability of Beauveria bassiana in the chinch bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) as a result of feeding activity on selected host plants. Environ. Entomol. 14:146-148.
192. Rath, A. C., Worledge, D., Koen, T. B., and Rowe, B. A., 1995a, Long-term field efficacy of the entomogenous fungus Metarhizium anisopliae against the subterranean scarab, Adoryphorus couloni, Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 5:439-451.
193. Rath, A. C., Anderson, G. C., Worledge, D., and Koen, T. B., 1995b, The effect of low temperatures on the virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae (DAT F-001) to the subterranean scarab, Adoryphorus couloni, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65:186-192.
194. Roberts, D. W., and Campbell, A. S., 1977, Stability of entomopathogenic fungi, Misc. Publ. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 10:1-80.
195. Roberts, D. W., and Hajek, A. E., 1992, Entomopathogenic fungi as bioinsecticides, in: Frontiers in Industrial Mycology (G. F. Leatham, ed.), Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 144-159.
196. Roberts, D. W., and Humber, R. A., 1981, Entomogenous fungi, in: Biology of Conidial Fungi, Vol. 2 (G. T. Cole and B. Kendrick, eds.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 201-236.
197. Roberts, D. W., Fuxa, J. R., Gaugler, R., Goettel, M., Jaques, R., and Maddox, J., 1991, Use of pathogens in insect control, in: CRC Handbook of Pest Management in Agriculture, 2nd Ed., Vol. II (D. Pimentel, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 243-278.
198. St. Leger, R. J., 1991, Integument as a barrier to microbial infections, in: Physiology of the Insect Epidermis (K. Binnington and A. Retnakaran, eds.), CSIRO, Australia, pp. 284-306.
199. St. Leger, R. J., 1993, Biology and mechanisms of insect-cuticle invasion by Deuteromycete fungal pathogens, in: Parasites and Pathogens of Insects. Vol. 2: Pathogens (N. E. Beckage, S. N. Thompson, and B. A. Federici, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 211-229.
200. St. Leger, R. J., 1995, The role of cuticle-degrading proteases in fungal pathogenesis of insects, Can. J. Bot., Suppl. 1 73:1119-1125.
201. St. Leger, R. J., Cooper, R. M., and Charnley, A. K., 1987, Distribution of chymoelastases and trypsin-like enzymes in five species of entomopathogenic Deuteromycetes, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 258:123-131.
202. St. Leger, R. J., Durrands, P. K., Charnley, A. K., and Cooper, R. M., 1988, The role of extracellular chymo-elastase in the virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae for Manduca sexta, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:285-293.
203. St. Leger, R. J., Butt, T. M., Goettel, M. S., Roberts, D. W., and Staples, R. C., 1989, Production in vitro of appressoria by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, Exp. Mycol. 13:274-288.
204. St. Leger, R. J., Butt, T. M., Staples, R. C., and Roberts, D. W., 1990, Second messenger involvement in differentiation of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, J. Gen. Microbiol. 136:1779-1789.
205. St. Leger, R. J., Goettel, M., Roberts, D. W., and Staples, R. C., 1991, Prepenetration events during infection of host cuticle by Metarhizium anisopliae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58:168-179.
206. St. Leger, R. J., May, B., Allee, L. L., Frank, D. C., and Roberts, D. W., 1992, Genetic differences in allozymes and in formation of infection structures among isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 60:89-101.
207. Saito, T., and Aoki, J., 1983, Toxicity of free fatty acids on the larval surfaces of two lepidopterous insects towards Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. and Paecilomyces fumoso-roseus (Wize) Brown et Smith (Deuteromycetes: Moniliales), Appl. Entomol. Zool. 18:225-233.
208. Samson, R. A., Evans, H. C., and Latgé, J.-P., 1988, Atlas of Entomopathogenic Fungi Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
209. Samuels, R. I., Chamley, A. K., and Reynolds, S. E., 1988a, The role of destruxins in the pathogenicity of three strains of Metarhizium anisopliae for the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta, Mycopathologia 104:51-58.
210. Samuels, R. I., Reynolds, S. E., Charnley, A. K., 1988b, Calcium channel activation of insect muscle by destruxins, insecticidal compounds produced by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 90C:403-412.
211. Sawyer, A. J., Griggs, M. H., and Wayne, R., 1994, Dimensions, density, and settling velocity of entomophthoralean conidia: Implications for aerial dissemination of spores, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 63:43-55.
212. Shimazu, M., 1987, Effect of rearing humidity of host insects on the spore types of Entomophaga maimaiga Humber, Shimazu et Soper (Entomophthorales; Entomophthoraceae), Appl. Entomol. Zool. 22:394-397.
213. Shimazu, M., Koizumi, C., Kushida, T., and Mitsuhashi, J., 1987, Infectivity of hibernated resting spores of Emomophaga maimaiga Humber, Shimazu et Soper (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae), Appl. Ent. Zool. 22:216-221.
214. Shimazu, M., Mitsuhashi, W., Hashimoto, H., and Ozawa, T., 1993, Persistence of Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) as a control agent of Anomala cuprea (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in a forestry nursery, Appl. Entomol. Zool. 28:103-105.
215. Smith, R. J., and Grula, E. A., 1981, Nutritional requirements for conidial germination and hyphal growth of Beauveria bassiana, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 37:222-230.
216. Smith, R. J., and Grula, E. A., 1982, Toxic components on the larval surface of the corn earworm (Heliothis zea) and their effects on germination and growth of Beauveria bassiana, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 39:15-22.
217. Smitley, D. R., Bauer, L. S., Hajek, A. E., Sapio, F. J., and Humber, R. A., 1995., Introduction and establishment of Entomophaga maimaiga, a fungal pathogen of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) in Michigan, Environ. Entomol. 24:1685-1695.
218. Soper, R. S., Holbrook, F. R., Majchrowicz, I., and Gordon, C. C., 1975, Production of Entomophthora resting spores for biological control of aphids, Univ. Maine Orono, Life Sci. Agric. Exp. Stn., Tech. Bull. 76:15 pp.
219. Sprenkel, R. K., and Brooks, W. M., 1977, Winter survival of the entomogenous fungus Nomuraea rileyi in North Carolina, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 29:262-266.
220. Steenberg, T., Langer, V., and Esbjerg, P., 1995, Entomopathogenic fungi in predatory beetles (Col.: Carabidae and Staphylinidae) from agricultural fields, Entomophaga 40:77-85.
221. Steinhaus, E. A., 1949. Principles of Insect Pathology, McGraw-Hill, New York.
222. Steinhaus, E. A., 1956. Microbial control - The emergence of an idea, Hilgardia 26:107-160.
223. Steinkraus, D. C., and Slaymaker, P. H., 1994, The effect of temperature and humidity on formation, germination, and inactivity of conidia of Neozygites fresenii (Zygomycetes: Neozygitaceae) from Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64:130-137.
224. Steinkraus, D. C., Kring, T. J., and Tugwell, N. P., 1991, Neozygites fresenii in Aphis gossypii on cotton, Southwest. Entomol. 16:118-122.
225. Steinkraus, D. C., Hollingsworth, R. G., and Boys, G. O., 1996, Aerial spores of Neozygites fresenii (Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae): Density, periodicity, and potential role in cotton aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) epizootics, Environ. Entomol. 25:48-57.
226. Stephen, W. P., and Fichter, B. L., 1990, Chalkbrood (Ascosphaera apis) resistance in the leafcutting bee. I. Challenge of selected lines, Apidologie 21:209-219.
227. Storey, G. K., and Gardner, W. A., 1987, Vertical movement of commercially formulated Beauveria bassiana conidia through four Georgia soil types, Environ. Entomol. 16:178-181.
228. Storey, G. K., Gardner, W. A., and Tollner, E. W., 1989, Penetration and persistence of commercially formulated Beauveria bassiana conidia in soil of two tillage systems, Environ. Entomol. 18:835-839.
229. Stoy, W. M., Valovage, W. D., Frye, R. D., and Carlson, R. B., 1988, Germination of resting spores of the grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) pathogen, Entomophaga grylli (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) pathotype 2, in selected environments, Environ. Entomol. 17:238-245.
230. Studdert, J. P., and Kaya, H. K., 1990a, Water potential, temperature, and clay-coating of Beauveria bassiana conidia: Effect on Spodoptera exigua pupal mortality in two soil types, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 56:327-336.
231. Studdert, J. P., and Kaya, H. K., 1990b, Water potential, temperature, and soil type on the formation of Beauveria bassiana colonies, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 56:380-386.
232. Studdert, J. P., Kaya, H. K., and Duniway, J. M., 1990, Effect of water potential, temperature, and clay-coating on survival of Beauveria bassiana conidia in a loam and peat soil, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55:417-427.
233. Takamura, N., and Sato, H., 1973, Observations on the epizootic of an entomophthoralean disease in outbreak populations of the gypsy moth, II, in: Transactions of the 84th Annual Meeting of the Japanese forestry Society, Japanese Forestry Society (in Japanese), pp. 355-357.
234. Tyrrell, D., 1988, Survival of Entomophaga aulicae in dried insect larvae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 52:187-188.
235. Ullyet, G. C., and Schonken, D. B., 1940, A fungus disease of Plutella maculipennis Curt. in South Africa, with notes on the use of entomogenous fungi in insect control, For. Sci. Bull., S. Afr. Dep. Agric. 218:1-24.
236. Uziel, A., and Kenneth, R. G., 1991, Survival of primary conidia and capilliconidia at different humidities in Erynia (subgen. Zoophthora) spp. and in Neozygites fresenii (Zygomycotina: Entomophthorales), with special emphasis on Erynia radicans, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58:118-126.
237. Vandenberg, J. D., 1993, Division on microbial control workshop recent activities in product development and registration: Fungi, Society for Invertebrate Pathology Newsletter 25 (3):31-32.
238. Vandenberg, J. D., 1994, Chalkbrood susceptibility among larvae of the alfalfa leafcutting bee (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) reared on different diets, J. Econ. Entomol. 87:350-355.
239. Vandenberg, J. D., 1996, Spore loads of the chalkbrood fungus Ascosphaera aggregata in the air within commercially-managed nest shelters of the alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata, Bee Science 4:106-110.
240. Velasco, L. R. I., 1983, Field parasitism of Apanteles plutellae Kurdj. (Braconidae: Hymenoptera) on the diamond-back moth of cabbage, Philipp. Entomol. 6:539-553.
241. Villani, M. G., Krueger, S. R., Schroeder, P. C., Consolie, F., Consolie, N. H., Preston-Wilsey, L. M., and Roberts, D. W., 1994, Soil application effects of Metarhizium anisopliae on Japanese beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) behavior and survival in turfgrass microcosms, Environ. Entomol. 23:502-513.
242. Wainwright, M., 1992, An Introduction to Fungal Biotechnology, Wiley, Chichester, England.
243. Wallace, D. R., MacLeod, D. M., Sullivan, C. R., Tyrrell, D., and DeLyzer, A. J., 1976, Induction of resting spore germination in Entomophthora aphidis by long-day light conditions, Can. J. Bot. 54:1410-1418.
244. Walstad, J. D., Anderson, R. F., and Stambough, W. J., 1970, Effects of environmental conditions on two species of muscardine fungi (Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhizium anisopliae), J. Invertebr. Pathol. 16:221-226.
245. Watson, D. W., and Petersen, J. J., 1993, Sexual activity of male Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) infected with Entomophthora muscae (Entomophthoraceae: Entomophthorales), Biol. Control 3:22-26.
246. Watson, D. W., Mullens, B. A., and Petersen, J. J., 1993, Behavioral fever response of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) to infection by Entomophthora muscae (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales). J. Invertebr. Pathol. 61:10-16.
247. Wellings, M., Zelazny, B., Scherer, R., and Zimmermann, G., 1995, First record of the entomopathogenic fungus Sorosporella sp. (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) in Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) from Madagascar: symptoms of infection, morphology and infectivity, Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 5:465-474.
248. Weseloh, R. M., and Andreadis, T. G., 1992, Mechanisms of transmission of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) fungus, Entomophaga maimaiga (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) and effects of site conditions on its prevalence, Environ. Entomol. 21:901-906.
249. Weseloh, R. M., and Andreadis, T. G., 1997, Persistence of resting spores of Entomophaga maimaiga, a fungal pathogen of gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 69:195-196.
250. Wilding, N., 1970, Entomophthora conidia in the air-spora, J. Gen. Microbiol. 62:149-157.
251. Wilding, N., 1971, Discharge of conidia of Entomophthora thaxteriana Petch from the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris, J. Gen. Microbiol. 69:417-422.
252. Wilding, N., 1973, The survival of Entomophthora spp. in mummified aphids at different temperatures and humidities, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 21:309-311.
253. Wilding, N., 1981, Pest control by Entomophthorales, in: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases 1970-1980 (H. D. Burges, ed.), Academic Press, London, pp. 539-554.
254. Wilding, N., and Latteur, G., 1987, The Entomophthorales - Problems relative to their mass production and their utilization, Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 52:159-164.
255. Willers, D., Lehmann-Danzinger, H., and Führer, E., 1982, Antibacterial and antimycotic effect of a newly discovered secretion from larvae of an endoparasitic insect, Pimpla turionellae L. (Hym.), Arch. Microbiol. 133:225-229.
256. Wraight, S. P., Butt, T. M., Galaini-Wraight, S., Allee, L., Soper, R. S., and Roberts, D. W., 1990, Germination and infection processes of the entomophthoralean fungus Erynia radicans on the potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 56:157-174.
257. Zimmermann, G., 1982, Effect of high temperature and artificial sunlight on the viability of conidia of Metarhizium anisopliae, J. Invertebr. Pathol. 40:36-40.