The KDP-PUK conflict in northern Iraq

Middle East Journal

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 223-241

  Gunter, Michael M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0042285294     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (98)

1. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
2. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
3. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
4. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
5. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
6. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
7. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
8. The Kurdish question in Iraq up to the 1970s, and the fall of Mulla Mustafa Barzani in 1975, have been well covered by Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981). Also see Edgar O'Balance, The Kurdish Revolt, 1961-1970 (Hamden. CT: Archon Books, 1973); Sa'ad Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, 1958-1970 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981); Nader Entessar, Kurdish Ethnonationalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 49-77: and Ismet Sheriff Vanly, "Kurdistan in Iraq," in People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, ed. Gerard Chaliand (London: Zed Press, 1980). pp. 153-210. For more recent events, see Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); Human Rights Watch/Middle East, Iraq's Crime of Genocide: The Anfal Campaign against the Kurds (New York: Human Rights Watch/Middle East 1995); and David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris: 1996). pp. 343-91.
9. For analyses, see Michael M. Gunter, "A de facto Kurdish State in Northern Iraq." Third World Quarterly 14, no. 2 ( 19931, pp. 295-319; Robert Olson. "The Creation of a Kurdish State in the 1990s?" Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 15 (Summer 1992). pp. 1-25; and Robert Olson, "The Kurdish Question and Geopolitk and Geostrategic Changes in the Middle East after the Gulf War," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 17 (Summer 1994), pp. 44-67.
10. For analyses, see Michael M. Gunter, "A de facto Kurdish State in Northern Iraq." Third World Quarterly 14, no. 2 ( 19931, pp. 295-319; Robert Olson. "The Creation of a Kurdish State in the 1990s?" Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 15 (Summer 1992). pp. 1-25; and Robert Olson, "The Kurdish Question and Geopolitk and Geostrategic Changes in the Middle East after the Gulf War," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 17 (Summer 1994), pp. 44-67.
11. For analyses, see Michael M. Gunter, "A de facto Kurdish State in Northern Iraq." Third World Quarterly 14, no. 2 ( 19931, pp. 295-319; Robert Olson. "The Creation of a Kurdish State in the 1990s?" Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 15 (Summer 1992). pp. 1-25; and Robert Olson, "The Kurdish Question and Geopolitk and Geostrategic Changes in the Middle East after the Gulf War," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 17 (Summer 1994), pp. 44-67.
12. United Nations Security Council Resolution 688, 5 April 1991. Text of resolution in US Department of State, US Department of State Dispatch, 8 April 1991, pp. 233-234.
13. "Barzani, Talabani Declare Trend toward Unity," al-Hayat (London), 11 December 1992, pp. 1, 6, as cited in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Near East & South Asia, 16 November 1992, p. 33. Hereafter cited as FBIS-NES.
14. "Barzani, Talabani Declare Trend toward Unity," al-Hayat (London), 11 December 1992, pp. 1, 6, as cited in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Near East & South Asia, 16 November 1992, p. 33. Hereafter cited as FBIS-NES.
15. Ibid.
16. The best source on the Mahabad Republic is William Eagleton, Jr., The Kurdish Republic of 1946 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). Also see Archie Roosevelt, Jr. "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad," Middle East Journal 1, No. 1, (Winter 1947), pp. 247-69.
17. The best source on the Mahabad Republic is William Eagleton, Jr., The Kurdish Republic of 1946 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). Also see Archie Roosevelt, Jr. "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad," Middle East Journal 1, No. 1, (Winter 1947), pp. 247-69.
18. Most of the specific dates and facts reported here were taken from a brief KDP document the author obtained while attending the party's eleventh congress in Irbil in August 1993, entitled "Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) Congresses 1946-1993."
19. Jawad, Iraq and the Kurdish Question, p. 20.
20. Ahmad thought he had a greater chance of leading the Kurdish national movement of Iraq by remaining head of the original mother organization's Iraqi branch in the Iranian KDP.
21. Dana Adams Schmidt. Journey among Brave Men (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1964), p. 123.
22. The following data concerning Talabani come largely from a document supplied to the author by the PUK, entitled Overview: Developments in Iraqi Kurdistan, April 1994.
23. Martin van Bruinessen, "The Kurds between Iran and Iraq," Middle East Report, July-August 1986, p. 16. For enlightening analyses of the diversity in Kurdish languages, see Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington: Taylor and Francis, 1992), pp. 167-75; and Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London: Routledge. 1992), pp. 68-83.
24. Martin van Bruinessen, "The Kurds between Iran and Iraq," Middle East Report, July-August 1986, p. 16. For enlightening analyses of the diversity in Kurdish languages, see Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington: Taylor and Francis, 1992), pp. 167-75; and Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London: Routledge. 1992), pp. 68-83.
25. Martin van Bruinessen, "The Kurds between Iran and Iraq," Middle East Report, July-August 1986, p. 16. For enlightening analyses of the diversity in Kurdish languages, see Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington: Taylor and Francis, 1992), pp. 167-75; and Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London: Routledge. 1992), pp. 68-83.
26. Martin van Bruinessen, "The Kurds between Iran and Iraq," Middle East Report, July-August 1986, p. 16. For enlightening analyses of the diversity in Kurdish languages, see Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan, 1918-1985 (San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Izady, The Kurds: A Concise Handbook (Washington: Taylor and Francis, 1992), pp. 167-75; and Philip G. Kreyenbroek, "On the Kurdish Language," in The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (London: Routledge. 1992), pp. 68-83.
27. It is important to remember, however, that although they are Muslims, most Kurds are not overly religious. Indeed, an old Kurdish saying has it that compared to an unbeliever, a Kurd is a good Muslim.
28. These are descriptions in general usage, which, although simplistic and narrow, are believed to be true by most Kurds.
29. Cited in Bruinessen, "The Kurds between Iran and Iraq," p. 22.
30. Cited in Ghareeb, Kurdish Question in Iraq, p. 183. Similarly, Mulla Mustafa's son Mas'ud reportedly declared during the recent fighting: "I prefer Arabs to Talabani, because they are fighting for Arab nationalism but Talabani is righting to betray his own people." Cited in Hayri Birler, "PUK Gaining Iran's Support by Suppressing IKDP," Turkish Daily News, 19 April 1995, p. A2. as cited in FBIS-NES, 26 April 1995, p. 28.
31. Cited in Ghareeb, Kurdish Question in Iraq, p. 183. Similarly, Mulla Mustafa's son Mas'ud reportedly declared during the recent fighting: "I prefer Arabs to Talabani, because they are fighting for Arab nationalism but Talabani is righting to betray his own people." Cited in Hayri Birler, "PUK Gaining Iran's Support by Suppressing IKDP," Turkish Daily News, 19 April 1995, p. A2. as cited in FBIS-NES, 26 April 1995, p. 28.
32. Cited in Ghareeb, Kurdish Question in Iraq, p. 183. Similarly, Mulla Mustafa's son Mas'ud reportedly declared during the recent fighting: "I prefer Arabs to Talabani, because they are fighting for Arab nationalism but Talabani is righting to betray his own people." Cited in Hayri Birler, "PUK Gaining Iran's Support by Suppressing IKDP," Turkish Daily News, 19 April 1995, p. A2. as cited in FBIS-NES, 26 April 1995, p. 28.
33. This refers to the well-known agreement of March 11, 1970 between Saddam Husayn and Barzani to settle the Kurdish problem. The agreement ultimately collapsed in March 1974. See "Bayan Majlis Qiyadat al-Thawra al-'Iraqi Hawl al-Hal al-Silmi lil-Qadiyya al-Kirdiyya" (Official Statement of the Iraqi Revolutionary Council on the Peaceful Solution of the Kurdish Problem), in Al-Jumhurriyya (Baghdad), 12 March 1970.
34. With the failure of the March 1970 Manifesto, Iraq issued an Autonomy Law in March 1974, that significantly reduced the concessions originally offered in 1970.
35. Cited in Tercuman (Istanbul), 10 October 1986, p. 7.
36. Omar Sheikmous, "The Current Situation of the Kurds in Iraq" (unpublished paper, June 1988), p. 3.
37. Cited in "Address by Madame Danielle Mitterrand," Kurdistan Review, April 1994, p. 10. Mitterrand's remarks were made in the context of her speech to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House, London, United Kingdom, 14 January 1994.
38. Cited in Kurdistan Democratic Party Research Department, "What Happened in Iraqi Kurdistan? May 1994," June 1994, p. 7.
39. The IMK received only 5.1 percent of the vote for parliament in the May 1992 elections and thus failed to meet the 7 percent requirement to receive any representation. Its leader, Shaykh 'Uthman 'Abd al-'Aziz, ran a very distant third to Barzani and Talabani for the position of supreme leader (president). ' Aziz accused the PUK "of 30 years of corruption, deviation and fratricide in northern Iraq" and of helping "Westerners spread HIV viruses in Iraq's Kurdistan." Cited in "Kurdish Spokesman: West Behind Clashes in Kurdistan," Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Tehran, 29 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 30 December 1993, p. 29. In another interview 'Aziz declared: "Our aim is to establish an Islamic state in northern Iraq similar to the one in Iran. . . Once we take the Kurds in Turkey into an independent Kurdistan we will establish a great Islamic state," in "Islamic Leader Sees Goal as Islamic Kurdistan," London, Kanal-6 television, as cited in FBIS-NES, 14 January 1994, p. 33. The PUK charged that "Iran directly and through proxy radical Islamic groups and elements within the KDP, has been engaged in sustaining and escalating the conflict." Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Foreign Relations Committee, "On the Recent Events in Iraqi Kurdistan," 29 May 1994, p. 2. Since the Iraqi Kurdish Islamists are divided into some eight different groups-one of which, the Revolutionary Hizballah, is headed by Shaykh Adham Barzani - 'Aziz's goals are not likely to be achieved in the near future. Nevertheless, the Islamists' vote total in the May 1992 elections indicated they were the third largest voting bloc.
40. The IMK received only 5.1 percent of the vote for parliament in the May 1992 elections and thus failed to meet the 7 percent requirement to receive any representation. Its leader, Shaykh 'Uthman 'Abd al-'Aziz, ran a very distant third to Barzani and Talabani for the position of supreme leader (president). ' Aziz accused the PUK "of 30 years of corruption, deviation and fratricide in northern Iraq" and of helping "Westerners spread HIV viruses in Iraq's Kurdistan." Cited in "Kurdish Spokesman: West Behind Clashes in Kurdistan," Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Tehran, 29 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 30 December 1993, p. 29. In another interview 'Aziz declared: "Our aim is to establish an Islamic state in northern Iraq similar to the one in Iran. . . Once we take the Kurds in Turkey into an independent Kurdistan we will establish a great Islamic state," in "Islamic Leader Sees Goal as Islamic Kurdistan," London, Kanal-6 television, as cited in FBIS-NES, 14 January 1994, p. 33. The PUK charged that "Iran directly and through proxy radical Islamic groups and elements within the KDP, has been engaged in sustaining and escalating the conflict." Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Foreign Relations Committee, "On the Recent Events in Iraqi Kurdistan," 29 May 1994, p. 2. Since the Iraqi Kurdish Islamists are divided into some eight different groups-one of which, the Revolutionary Hizballah, is headed by Shaykh Adham Barzani - 'Aziz's goals are not likely to be achieved in the near future. Nevertheless, the Islamists' vote total in the May 1992 elections indicated they were the third largest voting bloc.
41. The IMK received only 5.1 percent of the vote for parliament in the May 1992 elections and thus failed to meet the 7 percent requirement to receive any representation. Its leader, Shaykh 'Uthman 'Abd al-'Aziz, ran a very distant third to Barzani and Talabani for the position of supreme leader (president). ' Aziz accused the PUK "of 30 years of corruption, deviation and fratricide in northern Iraq" and of helping "Westerners spread HIV viruses in Iraq's Kurdistan." Cited in "Kurdish Spokesman: West Behind Clashes in Kurdistan," Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Tehran, 29 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 30 December 1993, p. 29. In another interview 'Aziz declared: "Our aim is to establish an Islamic state in northern Iraq similar to the one in Iran. . . Once we take the Kurds in Turkey into an independent Kurdistan we will establish a great Islamic state," in "Islamic Leader Sees Goal as Islamic Kurdistan," London, Kanal-6 television, as cited in FBIS-NES, 14 January 1994, p. 33. The PUK charged that "Iran directly and through proxy radical Islamic groups and elements within the KDP, has been engaged in sustaining and escalating the conflict." Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Foreign Relations Committee, "On the Recent Events in Iraqi Kurdistan," 29 May 1994, p. 2. Since the Iraqi Kurdish Islamists are divided into some eight different groups-one of which, the Revolutionary Hizballah, is headed by Shaykh Adham Barzani - 'Aziz's goals are not likely to be achieved in the near future. Nevertheless, the Islamists' vote total in the May 1992 elections indicated they were the third largest voting bloc.
42. The IMK received only 5.1 percent of the vote for parliament in the May 1992 elections and thus failed to meet the 7 percent requirement to receive any representation. Its leader, Shaykh 'Uthman 'Abd al-'Aziz, ran a very distant third to Barzani and Talabani for the position of supreme leader (president). ' Aziz accused the PUK "of 30 years of corruption, deviation and fratricide in northern Iraq" and of helping "Westerners spread HIV viruses in Iraq's Kurdistan." Cited in "Kurdish Spokesman: West Behind Clashes in Kurdistan," Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), Tehran, 29 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 30 December 1993, p. 29. In another interview 'Aziz declared: "Our aim is to establish an Islamic state in northern Iraq similar to the one in Iran. . . Once we take the Kurds in Turkey into an independent Kurdistan we will establish a great Islamic state," in "Islamic Leader Sees Goal as Islamic Kurdistan," London, Kanal-6 television, as cited in FBIS-NES, 14 January 1994, p. 33. The PUK charged that "Iran directly and through proxy radical Islamic groups and elements within the KDP, has been engaged in sustaining and escalating the conflict." Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Foreign Relations Committee, "On the Recent Events in Iraqi Kurdistan," 29 May 1994, p. 2. Since the Iraqi Kurdish Islamists are divided into some eight different groups-one of which, the Revolutionary Hizballah, is headed by Shaykh Adham Barzani - 'Aziz's goals are not likely to be achieved in the near future. Nevertheless, the Islamists' vote total in the May 1992 elections indicated they were the third largest voting bloc.
43. See "Barzani Message Blames Both Sides for Fighting," (clandestine) Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan, 27 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 28 December 1993, p. 26. Eventually the KDP and IMK became de facto allies against the PUK.
44. See "Barzani Message Blames Both Sides for Fighting," (clandestine) Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan, 27 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 28 December 1993, p. 26. Eventually the KDP and IMK became de facto allies against the PUK.
45. Cited in "Unscheduled Announcement," (clandestine) Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan, 26 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 28 December 1993, p. 25.
46. Cited in "Unscheduled Announcement," (clandestine) Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan, 26 December 1993, as cited in FBIS-NES, 28 December 1993, p. 25.
47. Interviews with both PUK and KDP sources, July 1995, Irvine, California.
48. Kendal Nezan is a Turkish-Kurdish physicist who fled from Turkey in 1971 and has since become a major critic of the Turkish government's policies. Over the years, Nezan has developed close ties with the French government and with Danielle Mitterrand, the wife of the former socialist president who served in that office for fourteen years. Najm al-Din O. Karim was born in The Kurdish region of Iraq, served while a young man as the personal physician of the elderly Mulla Mustafa Barzani, and later became a neurosurgeon in Washington. Because of his great knowledge of and connections with both the KDP and the PUK, as well as contacts made with US officials in Washington, Karim has played an important, behind-the-scenes role in current Iraqi Kurdish politics. See below.
49. The following citations and data about the Paris Agreement are taken from the copy printed in Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Foreign Relations Committee, "Iraqi Kurdistan: A Situation Report on Recent Events: The Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," February 1995. pp. 53-61.
50. Ibid., p. 54.
51. Ibid., p. 58.
52. In response to a letter from the US Department of State that said the intra-Kurdish fighting must stop because it harms the Kurdish people and that the United States, along with other states, would withdraw its support if the clashes continued, Barzani and Talabani held another inconclusive meeting in the parliament in Irbil on 29 August. Adnan Husayn. "Kurdish Leaderships in Northern Iraq Pledge to Withdraw Armed Militias from Cities," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 1 September 1994, p. 5, as cited in FBIS-NES, 2 September 1994, pp. 28-29; and "Iraqi Kurds End Fighting Due to U.S. Letter," Ozgur Ulke (Istanbul), 6 September 1994, p. 4, as cited in FBIS-West Europe, 15 September 1994, pp. 56-57; hereafter cited as FBIS-WEU. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 62.
53. In response to a letter from the US Department of State that said the intra-Kurdish fighting must stop because it harms the Kurdish people and that the United States, along with other states, would withdraw its support if the clashes continued, Barzani and Talabani held another inconclusive meeting in the parliament in Irbil on 29 August. Adnan Husayn. "Kurdish Leaderships in Northern Iraq Pledge to Withdraw Armed Militias from Cities," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 1 September 1994, p. 5, as cited in FBIS-NES, 2 September 1994, pp. 28-29; and "Iraqi Kurds End Fighting Due to U.S. Letter," Ozgur Ulke (Istanbul), 6 September 1994, p. 4, as cited in FBIS-West Europe, 15 September 1994, pp. 56-57; hereafter cited as FBIS-WEU. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 62.
54. In response to a letter from the US Department of State that said the intra-Kurdish fighting must stop because it harms the Kurdish people and that the United States, along with other states, would withdraw its support if the clashes continued, Barzani and Talabani held another inconclusive meeting in the parliament in Irbil on 29 August. Adnan Husayn. "Kurdish Leaderships in Northern Iraq Pledge to Withdraw Armed Militias from Cities," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 1 September 1994, p. 5, as cited in FBIS-NES, 2 September 1994, pp. 28-29; and "Iraqi Kurds End Fighting Due to U.S. Letter," Ozgur Ulke (Istanbul), 6 September 1994, p. 4, as cited in FBIS-West Europe, 15 September 1994, pp. 56-57; hereafter cited as FBIS-WEU. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 62.
55. In response to a letter from the US Department of State that said the intra-Kurdish fighting must stop because it harms the Kurdish people and that the United States, along with other states, would withdraw its support if the clashes continued, Barzani and Talabani held another inconclusive meeting in the parliament in Irbil on 29 August. Adnan Husayn. "Kurdish Leaderships in Northern Iraq Pledge to Withdraw Armed Militias from Cities," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 1 September 1994, p. 5, as cited in FBIS-NES, 2 September 1994, pp. 28-29; and "Iraqi Kurds End Fighting Due to U.S. Letter," Ozgur Ulke (Istanbul), 6 September 1994, p. 4, as cited in FBIS-West Europe, 15 September 1994, pp. 56-57; hereafter cited as FBIS-WEU. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 62.
56. In response to a letter from the US Department of State that said the intra-Kurdish fighting must stop because it harms the Kurdish people and that the United States, along with other states, would withdraw its support if the clashes continued, Barzani and Talabani held another inconclusive meeting in the parliament in Irbil on 29 August. Adnan Husayn. "Kurdish Leaderships in Northern Iraq Pledge to Withdraw Armed Militias from Cities," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 1 September 1994, p. 5, as cited in FBIS-NES, 2 September 1994, pp. 28-29; and "Iraqi Kurds End Fighting Due to U.S. Letter," Ozgur Ulke (Istanbul), 6 September 1994, p. 4, as cited in FBIS-West Europe, 15 September 1994, pp. 56-57; hereafter cited as FBIS-WEU. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 62.
57. 'Adnan Husayn, "Renewal of Armed Confrontations between Iraqi Kurds: Accusations Aimed at Non-Kurdish Parties," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 8 January 1995, p. 2, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 January 1995, p. 30.
58. 'Adnan Husayn, "Renewal of Armed Confrontations between Iraqi Kurds: Accusations Aimed at Non-Kurdish Parties," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 8 January 1995, p. 2, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 January 1995, p. 30.
59. "17 Kurdistan Parties Condemn Fighting," (clandestine) Voice of the People of Kurdistan, 5 January 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 January 1995, p. 28.
60. "17 Kurdistan Parties Condemn Fighting," (clandestine) Voice of the People of Kurdistan, 5 January 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 January 1995, p. 28.
61. Cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "The Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan," p. 18.
62. Amnesty International, Iraq: Human Rights Abuses in Iraqi Kurdistan since 1991 (New York: Amnesty International, 1995), pp. 81-82.
63. Ibid., p. 34.
64. Cited in Amberin Zaman, "Kurds Turn Iraqi Safe Zone into Killing Fields," Daily Telegraph (London), 5 April 1995, p. 15, as cited in FBIS-NES, 7 April 1995, p. 28.
65. Cited in Amberin Zaman, "Kurds Turn Iraqi Safe Zone into Killing Fields," Daily Telegraph (London), 5 April 1995, p. 15, as cited in FBIS-NES, 7 April 1995, p. 28.
66. Cited in Selim Caglayan, "Clinton Reprimands Barzani and Talabani," Hurriyet (Istanbul), 28 January 1995, p. 18, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 1 February 1995, p. 27. The British sent the Kurds a similar note warning them that "British public opinion would find it hard to understand continued Western guarantees . . . when the Kurds were using such violence against each other." Cited in David Hirst and Karen Dabrowska, "Britain Tells Kurds Battles Must End," Guardian, 23 January 1995.
67. Cited in Selim Caglayan, "Clinton Reprimands Barzani and Talabani," Hurriyet (Istanbul), 28 January 1995, p. 18, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 1 February 1995, p. 27. The British sent the Kurds a similar note warning them that "British public opinion would find it hard to understand continued Western guarantees . . . when the Kurds were using such violence against each other." Cited in David Hirst and Karen Dabrowska, "Britain Tells Kurds Battles Must End," Guardian, 23 January 1995.
68. Cited in Selim Caglayan, "Clinton Reprimands Barzani and Talabani," Hurriyet (Istanbul), 28 January 1995, p. 18, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 1 February 1995, p. 27. The British sent the Kurds a similar note warning them that "British public opinion would find it hard to understand continued Western guarantees . . . when the Kurds were using such violence against each other." Cited in David Hirst and Karen Dabrowska, "Britain Tells Kurds Battles Must End," Guardian, 23 January 1995.
69. Ibid.
70. Cited in Kurdish National Congress of North America, "The Washington Declaration Regarding Peace, Reconciliation and Democracy in Iraqi Kurdistan." March 1995; hereafter cited as "KNC Proposals."
71. Najm al-Din Karim, president of the KNC. in a telephone conversation with the author. 4 June 1995.
72. "KNC Proposals."
73. Ergun Balci, "Northern Iraq," Cumhuriyet (Istanbul), 31 July 1995, p. 9, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 9 August 1995, p. 43.
74. Ergun Balci, "Northern Iraq," Cumhuriyet (Istanbul), 31 July 1995, p. 9, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 9 August 1995, p. 43.
75. Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Committee on Foreign Relations. "On the Status of Iraqi Kurdistan: An Open Letter to the Friends of the Kurdish people," 2 July 1995.
76. 'Adnan Husayn, "Interview with Mas'ud Barzani," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 9 August 1995, p. 3, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 August 1995, p. 27.
77. 'Adnan Husayn, "Interview with Mas'ud Barzani," al-Sharq al-Awsat (London), 9 August 1995, p. 3, as cited in FBIS-NES, 10 August 1995, p. 27.
78. This and the following are based on Kurdistan Democratic Party Press Release, "KDP and PUK Meet under U.S. Auspices," 12 August 1995.
79. Cited in "Kurd Leader Gives Interview on Plans. Issues." London BBC World Service, 27 September 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES. 28 September 1995, p. 44. Cited in IInur Cevik. "Exclusive Telephone Interview," Turkish Daily News, 20 September 1995, pp. I, A7, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 26 September 1995, p. 28.
80. Cited in "Kurd Leader Gives Interview on Plans. Issues." London BBC World Service, 27 September 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES. 28 September 1995, p. 44. Cited in IInur Cevik. "Exclusive Telephone Interview," Turkish Daily News, 20 September 1995, pp. I, A7, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 26 September 1995, p. 28.
81. Cited in "Kurd Leader Gives Interview on Plans. Issues." London BBC World Service, 27 September 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES. 28 September 1995, p. 44. Cited in IInur Cevik. "Exclusive Telephone Interview," Turkish Daily News, 20 September 1995, pp. I, A7, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 26 September 1995, p. 28.
82. Cited in "Kurd Leader Gives Interview on Plans. Issues." London BBC World Service, 27 September 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES. 28 September 1995, p. 44. Cited in IInur Cevik. "Exclusive Telephone Interview," Turkish Daily News, 20 September 1995, pp. I, A7, as cited in FBIS-WEU, 26 September 1995, p. 28.
83. Cited in Ilnur Cevik. "Officials Say Syria Holds PUK, PKK Cards," Turkish Daily News, 26 September 1995. pp. 1, A8,
84. as cited in FBIS-WEU, 4 October 1995, p. 29.
85. Cited in "SAIRI Chief Interviewed on Internecine Strife," Tehran Times. 11 October 1995, p. 2, as cited in FBIS-NES, 26 October 1995, p. 46.
86. Cited in "SAIRI Chief Interviewed on Internecine Strife," Tehran Times. 11 October 1995, p. 2, as cited in FBIS-NES, 26 October 1995, p. 46.
87. "Kurdish Parties Agree To Bury Their Differences," IRNA, 11 October 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES, 13 October 1995, p. 30.
88. "Kurdish Parties Agree To Bury Their Differences," IRNA, 11 October 1995, as cited in FBIS-NES, 13 October 1995, p. 30.
89. Statement made by François Hariri, KDP politburo member, in the 29 September 1994 issue of the KDP newspapers Golan and Khebat, as cited in PUK Foreign Relations Committee, "Context and Specifics of the Infighting in Iraqi Kurdistan." p. 11.
90. Zuhayr Qusaybati, "Interview with... Mas'ud Barzani," al-Hayat (London), 5 June 1994, pp. 1, 4, as cited in FBIS-NES, 8 June 1994, p. 36. Barzani also attributed the lighting to "ways of tackling problems and resolving a political matter" and "the mobilization and education of cadres." Ibid.
91. Zuhayr Qusaybati, "Interview with... Mas'ud Barzani," al-Hayat (London), 5 June 1994, pp. 1, 4, as cited in FBIS-NES, 8 June 1994, p. 36. Barzani also attributed the lighting to "ways of tackling problems and resolving a political matter" and "the mobilization and education of cadres." Ibid.
92. Cited in Zaman, "Kurds Turn Iraqi Safe Zone into Killing Fields."
93. On the question of primordial loyalties among the Kurds, see Martin van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan (London: Zed Books Ltd., 1992). Several knowledgeable Kurds whom the author met while he was in the Kurdish region of Iraq during'the summer of 1993 recommended that one read a much earlier study that would still give useful insights here: W. A. Wigram and Edgar T. A. Wigram, The Cradle of Mankind: Life in Eastern Kurdistan. 2nd ed. (London: A & C Black Ltd., 1922).
94. On the question of primordial loyalties among the Kurds, see Martin van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan (London: Zed Books Ltd., 1992). Several knowledgeable Kurds whom the author met while he was in the Kurdish region of Iraq during'the summer of 1993 recommended that one read a much earlier study that would still give useful insights here: W. A. Wigram and Edgar T. A. Wigram, The Cradle of Mankind: Life in Eastern Kurdistan. 2nd ed. (London: A & C Black Ltd., 1922).
95. Stephen C. Pelletiere, The Kurds and Their Agas: An Assessment of the Situation in Northern Iraq (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 1991). For an equally pessimistic evaluation, see Chris Hedges, "Quarrels of Kurdish Leaders Sour Dreams of a Homeland," New York Times, 28 June 1994, pp. A1. A5.
96. Stephen C. Pelletiere, The Kurds and Their Agas: An Assessment of the Situation in Northern Iraq (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 1991). For an equally pessimistic evaluation, see Chris Hedges, "Quarrels of Kurdish Leaders Sour Dreams of a Homeland," New York Times, 28 June 1994, pp. A1. A5.
97. Susan Kinsley, "Kurdistranded," Washington Post, 6 June 1993, p. C4.
98. The following data are largely taken from Caryle Murphy, "Economy Tests Kurds' Self-Rule," Washington Post. 10 May 1994, p. A10.