Southeast Asian women in Lowell family relations, gender roles, and community concerns

Frontiers

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 101-129+163

  Pho, Tuyet Lan ^a   Mulvey, Anne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LOWELL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042243663     PISSN: 01609009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (75)

1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
6. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
8. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Refugee Resettlement, Refugee Resettlement Program, Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: GPO, January 31, 1995); David W. Haines, ed., "Introduction," Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989), 1-23; Thanh Van Tran, "The Vietnamese American Family," in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, ed. Charles H. Mindel, Robert W. Habenstein, and Roosevelt Wright (New York: Elsevier, 1997), 254-83; Ellen Cole, Oliva M. Espin, and Esther D. Rothblum, eds., Refugee Women and Their Mental Health: Shattered Societies, Shattered Lives (New York: The Haworth Press, 1992); and Nira Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation (London: Sage Publications, 1997). Much of the published literature on Southeast Asian refugees focuses on general issues as they relate to refugee resettlement programs and language acquisition by children (bilingual education or English as a second language) or the mechanics of camp maintenance and the psychological aspects of resettlement. See William T. Liu, Maryanne Lamana, and Alice Murata, Transition to Nowhere: Vietnamese Refugees in America (Nashville, Tenn.: Charter House, 1979); Haines, "Introduction"; and Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance among Southeast Asian Students (Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, Lowell, 1994).
9. Tuyet-Lan Pho, of Vietnamese ethnic background, and Anne Mulvey, of Irish descent, have been executive members of the Council on Diversity and Pluralism at the University of Massachusetts, Lowell, since 1995. One of the Council's major goals is to provide awareness and understanding to faculty and students about the acculturation processes experienced by different immigrant groups living in the greater Lowell area through research and community work. Pho and Mulvey have coordinated several community projects and conducted separate studies about the Southeast Asian refugees.
10. Tuyet-Lan Pho, Promoting Integration and School Improvement in the Lowell Public Schools: Chapter 636 Evaluation Report Academic Year 1987-88, College of Education, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance," and Pho, "Introduction," Fractured Identities: Cambodia's Children of War, ed. James Higgins and Joan Ross (Lowell, Mass.: Loom Press, 1997), 9-16.
11. Tuyet-Lan Pho, Promoting Integration and School Improvement in the Lowell Public Schools: Chapter 636 Evaluation Report Academic Year 1987-88, College of Education, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance," and Pho, "Introduction," Fractured Identities: Cambodia's Children of War, ed. James Higgins and Joan Ross (Lowell, Mass.: Loom Press, 1997), 9-16.
12. Tuyet-Lan Pho, Promoting Integration and School Improvement in the Lowell Public Schools: Chapter 636 Evaluation Report Academic Year 1987-88, College of Education, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance," and Pho, "Introduction," Fractured Identities: Cambodia's Children of War, ed. James Higgins and Joan Ross (Lowell, Mass.: Loom Press, 1997), 9-16.
13. The estimate was compiled by multiplying the number of students enrolled in the public schools by a factor of 5.2 (Massachusetts Office for Refugees and Immigrants, 1997 Demographic Update: Refugees and Immigrants in Massachusetts [Boston: Massachusetts Office for Refugees and Immigrants, 1997]).
14. Numerous antirefugee incidents occurred between 1975 and 1990 in cities and states with large concentrations of Southeast Asian refugees. These conflicts include protests aimed at new arrivals, property destruction, job and social service disputes, harassment and altercations, assaults, arson to homes, and incidents that resulted in death for either refugees or natives (Jeremy Hein, From Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia: A Refugee Experience in the United States [New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995], 50-68).
15. Peter Kiang, "When Know-nothings Speak English Only: Analyzing Irish and Cambodian Struggles for Community Development and Educational Empowerment," in The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s, ed. Karin Aguilar-San Juan (Boston: South End Press, 1994), 125-45.
16. James Crawford, Hold Your Tongue: Bilingualism and the Politics of "English Only" (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
17. Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance"; and Pho, Promoting Integration and School Improvement.
18. Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance"; and Pho, Promoting Integration and School Improvement.
19. All names of individuals used in this paper are pseudonyms to protect the privacy of the subjects. Lien is a Vietnamese member of one of the six families who were interviewed by Tuyet-Lan Pho in a follow-up study of her dissertation research about family education among Southeast Asians in Lowell. The other families are the Soths and the Oums who came from Cambodia, the Yangs and the Souriyas from Laos, and the Vus from Vietnam.
20. Nathan Caplan, Marcella H. Choy, and John K. Whitmore, Children of the Boat People (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).
21. Pho, "Family Education and Academic Performance."
22. Many Southeast Asians became Christian when they encountered religious organizations that provided health and educational services in refugee camps. Chenda Soth was born in 1975 in Cambodia. Her parents and their four children were resettled in the United States in 1981. They lived in Texas and California before moving to Lowell in 1992.
23. Naly Yang was born in 1975 in Vientiane, the second child in a family of four children. Her parents, of Hmong ethnic background, migrated to Laos, attending school and working there prior to their departure to the United States in 1985. The family moved to Lowell in 1986.
24. Sam Oum was born in Cambodia in 1975, the third child in a family of six children. His family moved to the United States in 1984 and to Lowell in 1986.
25. Mai Vu was born in Saigon in 1972, the fourth child in a family of seven children. Her family moved to Lowell in 1990.
26. Caroline Louise Cole, "Cambodian Youths Forced into Marriage: Cultural Crisis Seen in Community," The Boston Globe, June 2, 1996, 1, 9.
27. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1990 Census of Population: Asians and Pacific Islanders in the United States (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1993).
28. The U.S. poverty level is set at $18,000 as annual income for a family of five (Massachusetts Department of Employment and Training, Field Service Research Department, "Northeast Region Employment Factsheet," September 1993.
29. Cue Vu is Mai's mother. She was in her late forties at the time of this study. She had some education in Vietnam and was working at home as a stitcher to supplement the family income.
30. Nazli Kibria, Family Tightrope: The Changing Life of Vietnamese-Americans (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
31. Dang T. T. Wei, Vietnamese Refugee Students: A Handbook for School Personnel (Cambridge, Mass.: Lesley College, 1984); Center for Applied Linguistics, The Peoples and Cultures of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linquistics, 1981); and Sun-Him Chhim, Khamchong Luangpraseut, and Dinh Te Huynh, Introduction to Cambodian, Lao, and Vietnamese Cultures, 2nd ed. (San Diego, Calif.: Multifunctional Service Center, San Diego State University, 1989).
32. Dang T. T. Wei, Vietnamese Refugee Students: A Handbook for School Personnel (Cambridge, Mass.: Lesley College, 1984); Center for Applied Linguistics, The Peoples and Cultures of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linquistics, 1981); and Sun-Him Chhim, Khamchong Luangpraseut, and Dinh Te Huynh, Introduction to Cambodian, Lao, and Vietnamese Cultures, 2nd ed. (San Diego, Calif.: Multifunctional Service Center, San Diego State University, 1989).
33. Dang T. T. Wei, Vietnamese Refugee Students: A Handbook for School Personnel (Cambridge, Mass.: Lesley College, 1984); Center for Applied Linguistics, The Peoples and Cultures of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linquistics, 1981); and Sun-Him Chhim, Khamchong Luangpraseut, and Dinh Te Huynh, Introduction to Cambodian, Lao, and Vietnamese Cultures, 2nd ed. (San Diego, Calif.: Multifunctional Service Center, San Diego State University, 1989).
34. Kiang, "When Know-nothings Speak English Only"; and Linda Silka and Jahnvibol Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks: The Southeast Asian Experience," American Journal of Community Psychology (22:4): 497-529.
35. Kiang, "When Know-nothings Speak English Only"; and Linda Silka and Jahnvibol Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks: The Southeast Asian Experience," American Journal of Community Psychology (22:4): 497-529.
36. Tuyet-Lan Pho, "Issues and Challenges in Educational Programs for Vietnamese Women," paper presented at Women of Color: The American Road to Empowerment, University of Rhode Island Chautauqua, Kingston, Rhode Island, April 1990.
37. Kibria, Family Tightrope, 9; and Daniel Golden, "Battered Lives," The Boston Globe Magazine, December 29, 1991, 10-11, 17-20, 23-24.
38. Kibria, Family Tightrope, 9; and Daniel Golden, "Battered Lives," The Boston Globe Magazine, December 29, 1991, 10-11, 17-20, 23-24.
39. Golden, "Battered Lives," 24.
40. Raymond D. Fowler, ed., "International Perspectives on Domestic Violence," American Psychologist (54:1): 1-76; and Golden, "Battered Lives."
41. Raymond D. Fowler, ed., "International Perspectives on Domestic Violence," American Psychologist (54:1): 1-76; and Golden, "Battered Lives."
42. Golden, "Battered Lives," 23.
43. Golden, "Battered Lives"; and Governor's Commission on Domestic Violence, Statewide Hearings on Domestic Violence: Findings and Recommendations, unpublished manuscript available from Governors Commission on Domestic Violence, Boston; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
44. Golden, "Battered Lives"; and Governor's Commission on Domestic Violence, Statewide Hearings on Domestic Violence: Findings and Recommendations, unpublished manuscript available from Governors Commission on Domestic Violence, Boston; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
45. Golden, "Battered Lives"; and Governor's Commission on Domestic Violence, Statewide Hearings on Domestic Violence: Findings and Recommendations, unpublished manuscript available from Governors Commission on Domestic Violence, Boston; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
46. William Sinagra and Marcia Cassidy, "4 Children Shot; Mother's Boyfriend Charged," The Lowell Sun, November 13, 1995, 1, 4.
47. Brian MacQuarrie, "Lowell Cambodians Feel Urgency to Find Solutions to Violence," The Boston Globe, January 31, 1996, 15, 22.
48. Brian Martin, "Annual Report to the Lowell City Manager's Domestic Violence Task Force" (Lowell, Mass.: City Manager's Office, Lowell City Hall); and Anne Mulvey, "Gender, Economic Context, Perceptions of Safety and Quality of Life: A Case Study of Lowell, Massachusetts," American Journal of Community Psychology 30:5 (2002): 655-79.
49. Brian Martin, "Annual Report to the Lowell City Manager's Domestic Violence Task Force" (Lowell, Mass.: City Manager's Office, Lowell City Hall); and Anne Mulvey, "Gender, Economic Context, Perceptions of Safety and Quality of Life: A Case Study of Lowell, Massachusetts," American Journal of Community Psychology 30:5 (2002): 655-79.
50. MacQuarrie, "Lowell Cambodians Feel Urgency"; Southeast Asian Task Force, Domestic Violence in the Cambodian Community, Mitch Shuldman, prod. (Media Center, University of Massachusetts, Wilder Street, Lowell, Mass. 01854); and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
51. MacQuarrie, "Lowell Cambodians Feel Urgency"; Southeast Asian Task Force, Domestic Violence in the Cambodian Community, Mitch Shuldman, prod. (Media Center, University of Massachusetts, Wilder Street, Lowell, Mass. 01854); and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
52. MacQuarrie, "Lowell Cambodians Feel Urgency"; Southeast Asian Task Force, Domestic Violence in the Cambodian Community, Mitch Shuldman, prod. (Media Center, University of Massachusetts, Wilder Street, Lowell, Mass. 01854); and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
53. This discussion is based on committee minutes, reports, and notes taken by one of the authors, Mulvey, who was a member of the planning committee. Scholarly and popular sources are used to interpret issues raised in the film project and to link it to other initiatives.
54. Hai Pho, "The Politics of Refugee Resettlement in Massachusetts," Immigration World (19:4): 4-10; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
55. Hai Pho, "The Politics of Refugee Resettlement in Massachusetts," Immigration World (19:4): 4-10; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
56. Richard F. Mollica, Grace Wyshak, and James Lavelle, "The Psychosocial Impact of War Trauma and Torture on Southeast Asian Refugees," American Journal of Psychiatry 144:12 (1987): 1567-72; and Gretchen B. Van Boemel and Patricia D. Rozee, "Treatment for Psychosomatic Blindness among Cambodian Refugee Women," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 239-65.
57. Richard F. Mollica, Grace Wyshak, and James Lavelle, "The Psychosocial Impact of War Trauma and Torture on Southeast Asian Refugees," American Journal of Psychiatry 144:12 (1987): 1567-72; and Gretchen B. Van Boemel and Patricia D. Rozee, "Treatment for Psychosomatic Blindness among Cambodian Refugee Women," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 239-65.
58. Soruep Im, as cited in Cole, "Cambodian Youths Forced into Marriage," 10.
59. Rhea Gorden and Vesna Nuon, as cited in Cole, "Cambodian Youths Forced into Marriage," 1.
60. Deborah Straszheim, "Teen-age Pregnancy: Lowell's Quiet Crisis," The Lowell Sun, February 12, 1995, 1, 4-5, and "Why? Teen-age Pregnancy: Lowell's Quiet Crisis," The Lowell Sun, February 13, 1995, 1, 4.
61. Deborah Straszheim, "Teen-age Pregnancy: Lowell's Quiet Crisis," The Lowell Sun, February 12, 1995, 1, 4-5, and "Why? Teen-age Pregnancy: Lowell's Quiet Crisis," The Lowell Sun, February 13, 1995, 1, 4.
62. Teens Reaching Out, Teen Pregnancy Prevention Materials (Lowell, Mass.: Lowell Teen Coalition, 585 Merrimack Street, Lowell, Mass., 1999).
63. Estimates of the number of people murdered during Pol Pot's "reign of terror" (1975-79) range from one million to more than two million people. Most survivors lost many family members or did not know if they were alive. See Patricia K. Robin Herbst, "From Helpless Victim to Empowered Survivor: Oral History as a Treatment for Survivors of Torture," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 141-54. Herbst found that when women talked about these experiences they felt great shame that "Khmer killed Khmer"(152). Escape and relocation involved life-threatening danger. Rape was common, but is rarely acknowledged because blame and shame are placed on survivors and their families. Protection of children and families was often the strongest reason to keep going. See Theanvy Kuoch, Richard A. Miller, and Mary F. Scully, "Healing the Wounds of the Mahantdori," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 191-207.
64. Estimates of the number of people murdered during Pol Pot's "reign of terror" (1975-79) range from one million to more than two million people. Most survivors lost many family members or did not know if they were alive. See Patricia K. Robin Herbst, "From Helpless Victim to Empowered Survivor: Oral History as a Treatment for Survivors of Torture," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 141-54. Herbst found that when women talked about these experiences they felt great shame that "Khmer killed Khmer"(152). Escape and relocation involved life-threatening danger. Rape was common, but is rarely acknowledged because blame and shame are placed on survivors and their families. Protection of children and families was often the strongest reason to keep going. See Theanvy Kuoch, Richard A. Miller, and Mary F. Scully, "Healing the Wounds of the Mahantdori," in Cole, Espin, and Rothblum, Refugee Women and Their Mental Health, 191-207.
65. Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks," 518.
66. For example, there is evidence that leaving an abuser is associated with increased violence and greater risk. See Ronet Bachman and Linda. E. Saltzman, Violence against Women: Estimates from the Redesigned Survey (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, 1995).
67. Because this section consists mostly of personal reflections by Mulvey about her participation in the film project, it is written using the first person singular.
68. Kibria, The Family Tightrope; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
69. Kibria, The Family Tightrope; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
70. Kuoch, Miller, and Scully, "Healing the Wounds of the Mahantdori"; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
71. Kuoch, Miller, and Scully, "Healing the Wounds of the Mahantdori"; and Silka and Tip, "Empowering the Silent Ranks."
72. Kuoch, Miller, and Scully, "Healing the Wounds of the Mahantdori," 204.
73. Sophy Suon, personal communication with Mulvey, Lowell, October 1998.
74. Christine McConville, "It's Official: Lowell an All-America City," The Lowell Sun, June 27, 1999, 1, 7.
75. Matt Wickenheiser, "Asians a Strong Thread in Lowell's Fabric," The Lowell Sun, June 29, 1999, 1, 4.