Malaria Films: Motion Pictures as a Public Health Tool

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 93, Issue 7, 2003, Pages 1046-1056

  Fedunkiw, Marianne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; EDUCATION; FILM; HEALTH CARE; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; MALARIA; PUBLIC HEALTH; RECORDING; REVIEW; SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE; SOCIAL CLASS; TECHNIQUE; WAR; WEAPON; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ARTICLE; AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MALE; MILITARY MEDICINE; MOSQUITO; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES;

CHLORPHENOTANE; INSECTICIDE;

DDT; FEMALE; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INSECTICIDES; MALARIA; MALE; MILITARY MEDICINE; MOSQUITO CONTROL; MOTION PICTURES; PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0042243537     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/ajph.93.7.1046     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. WHO fact sheet "What is malaria?" Available at: http://www.who. int/inf-fs/en/Information Sheet01.pdf. Accessed August 15, 2002.
2. Among the secondary literature on film as historical artifact are Feature Films as History, ed. K.R.M. Short (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981) and The Historian and Film, ed. Paul Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Among those who have written on medical feature films are Rima D. Apple and Michael W. Apple, "Screening Science," Isis 84 (1993): 750-754, with films reviews on pp. 755-774; Michael Shortland, Medicine and Film: A Checklist, Survey and Research Resource (Oxford: Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 1989); and Peter E. Dans, Doctors in the Movies: Boil the Water and Just Say Aah (Bloomington. Ill: Medi-Ed Press, 2000).
3. Among the secondary literature on film as historical artifact are Feature Films as History, ed. K.R.M. Short (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981) and The Historian and Film, ed. Paul Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Among those who have written on medical feature films are Rima D. Apple and Michael W. Apple, "Screening Science," Isis 84 (1993): 750-754, with films reviews on pp. 755-774; Michael Shortland, Medicine and Film: A Checklist, Survey and Research Resource (Oxford: Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 1989); and Peter E. Dans, Doctors in the Movies: Boil the Water and Just Say Aah (Bloomington. Ill: Medi-Ed Press, 2000).
4. Among the secondary literature on film as historical artifact are Feature Films as History, ed. K.R.M. Short (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981) and The Historian and Film, ed. Paul Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Among those who have written on medical feature films are Rima D. Apple and Michael W. Apple, "Screening Science," Isis 84 (1993): 750-754, with films reviews on pp. 755-774; Michael Shortland, Medicine and Film: A Checklist, Survey and Research Resource (Oxford: Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 1989); and Peter E. Dans, Doctors in the Movies: Boil the Water and Just Say Aah (Bloomington. Ill: Medi-Ed Press, 2000).
5. Among the secondary literature on film as historical artifact are Feature Films as History, ed. K.R.M. Short (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981) and The Historian and Film, ed. Paul Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Among those who have written on medical feature films are Rima D. Apple and Michael W. Apple, "Screening Science," Isis 84 (1993): 750-754, with films reviews on pp. 755-774; Michael Shortland, Medicine and Film: A Checklist, Survey and Research Resource (Oxford: Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 1989); and Peter E. Dans, Doctors in the Movies: Boil the Water and Just Say Aah (Bloomington. Ill: Medi-Ed Press, 2000).
6. Among the secondary literature on film as historical artifact are Feature Films as History, ed. K.R.M. Short (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981) and The Historian and Film, ed. Paul Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Among those who have written on medical feature films are Rima D. Apple and Michael W. Apple, "Screening Science," Isis 84 (1993): 750-754, with films reviews on pp. 755-774; Michael Shortland, Medicine and Film: A Checklist, Survey and Research Resource (Oxford: Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 1989); and Peter E. Dans, Doctors in the Movies: Boil the Water and Just Say Aah (Bloomington. Ill: Medi-Ed Press, 2000).
7. This can be said of DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946), The Sardinian Project (1949), and Adventure in Sardinia (1950, a shortened version of The Sardinian Project).
8. This can be said of DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946), The Sardinian Project (1949), and Adventure in Sardinia (1950, a shortened version of The Sardinian Project).
9. This can be said of DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946), The Sardinian Project (1949), and Adventure in Sardinia (1950, a shortened version of The Sardinian Project).
10. Venereal disease education films are among the most popular, both in terms of volume of footage as well as historical subject matter. Among those who have written on venereal disease films are Robert Eberwein, Sex Ed: Film, Video, and the Framework of Desire (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999); Susan Lederer and John Parascandola, "Screening Syphilis: 'Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet' Meets the Public Health Service," Journal of the History of Medicine 53 (1998): 345-370; and John Parascandola, "VD at the Movies: PHS Films of the 1930s and 1940s," Public Health Reports 111 (1996): 173-175.
11. Venereal disease education films are among the most popular, both in terms of volume of footage as well as historical subject matter. Among those who have written on venereal disease films are Robert Eberwein, Sex Ed: Film, Video, and the Framework of Desire (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999); Susan Lederer and John Parascandola, "Screening Syphilis: 'Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet' Meets the Public Health Service," Journal of the History of Medicine 53 (1998): 345-370; and John Parascandola, "VD at the Movies: PHS Films of the 1930s and 1940s," Public Health Reports 111 (1996): 173-175.
12. Venereal disease education films are among the most popular, both in terms of volume of footage as well as historical subject matter. Among those who have written on venereal disease films are Robert Eberwein, Sex Ed: Film, Video, and the Framework of Desire (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999); Susan Lederer and John Parascandola, "Screening Syphilis: 'Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet' Meets the Public Health Service," Journal of the History of Medicine 53 (1998): 345-370; and John Parascandola, "VD at the Movies: PHS Films of the 1930s and 1940s," Public Health Reports 111 (1996): 173-175.
13. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
14. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
15. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
16. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
17. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
18. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
19. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
20. Among them are Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Margaret Humphreys (author of Malaria: Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001]), and Ulf Schmidt, whose session at the 1999 meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine was titled "Malaria at the Movies-Rolling Back Malaria on Film!" As the abstract stated, the session was meant to "underline the consistency of the scientific aspects of the malaria message and the cultural adaptations of its production and reception." Clips from the following films were shown: The Mosquito (1941), the animated Disney film later retitled Winged Scourge; the German-language film Feind Malaria (Enemy Malaria; 1942); and DDT Versus Malaria: A Successful Experiment in Malaria Control by the Kenya Medical Department (1946). Widening the topic beyond malaria and public health, there is Timothy Martyn Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1999) and Martin Pernick, Black Stork: Eugenics and Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures Since 1915 (New York: Oxford, 1996). Pernick brought a copy of the film Black Stork to the 1996 American Association for the History of Medicine meeting in Buffalo, NY. The double capacity conference room was full-an estimated 200 people at a meeting with multiple, concurrent sessions-showing that historians, too, are drawn to film as a medium.
21. The archival documentation on Malaria includes scripts, correspondence, and distribution information. The idea of a Rockefeller Foundation-sponsored malaria film was conceived in 1922. Malaria was the second successful public health feature funded by the International Health Division of the foundation; its makers used lessons learned from the foundation's phenomenally successful Unhooking the Hookworm (1921). The 2-reel film, which cost $10 523, was a combination of the best features of 2 earlier malaria films, one of which was titled Malaria and the Mosquito. By 1931, the film was deemed to be out of date and copies were no longer being distributed by the foundation. The negatives and titles were donated to the US Public Health Service in 1937.
22. W. Allen Daley and Hester Viney, Popular Education in Public Health (London: H.K Lewis, 1927), 109.
23. Ibid, 110.
24. Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain, 43-44. Daley and Viney give the following costs for film production "under more or less easy circumstances-as, for example, illustrating the work of one particular clinic": approximately "1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per foot (negative and positive)," where 1000 feet of film equaled about 18 minutes of screen time; Popular Education, 111.
25. Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain, 43-44. Daley and Viney give the following costs for film production "under more or less easy circumstances-as, for example, illustrating the work of one particular clinic": approximately "1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per foot (negative and positive)," where 1000 feet of film equaled about 18 minutes of screen time; Popular Education, 111.
26. Daley and Viney cite many of these production limitations in Popular Education, 111.
27. Boon, Films and the Contestation of Public Health in Interwar Britain, 58.
28. Daley and Viney, Popular Education, 110.
29. In Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880 (London: John Murray, 1978), 1, Gordon Harrison states that malaria was described by Hippocrates.
30. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
31. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
32. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
33. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
34. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
35. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
36. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
37. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
38. The history of malaria and malaria prevention has been well documented; besides Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, see A. Celli, The History of Malaria in the Roman Campagna (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielson, 1933); R.S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1991); S.C. Oaks and V.S. Mitchell, Malaria: Obstacles and Opportunities (Washington: National Academy Press, 1991); E. Pampana, Textbook of Malaria Eradication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963); V.P. Sharma and K.N.M. Mehotra, "Malaria Resurgence in India: A Critical Study," Social Science and Medicine 22 (1986): 835-845; Social Science and Medicine 27 (9) (1993), a special issue devoted entirely to malaria; Parassitologia 41 (1-3) (1999), a monograph-length collection of essays titled "The Malaria Challenge After One Hundred Years of Malariology"; and Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, ed. G.A. T. Targett (Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons, 1991).
39. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
40. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
41. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
42. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
43. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
44. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
45. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
46. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
47. Interestingly, 2 films, Subsoil Drainage-Malaya (1926) and Nepal-The Unknown (ca. 1928), were amateur efforts. Only 2 organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation and League of Red Cross Societies, made more than one malaria film during this early period. The predominant malaria preventive measures in these early films are mosquito hoods, screens, and clothing that covers the skin, thereby reducing the chance of being bitten and potentially contracting malaria. The Rockefeller Foundation's Malaria (1925) also includes footage of a man spraying a ditch, presumably with a tank of oil, and another of a man dusting a marshy area, by hand, with Paris green. Although I have not yet found a viewing copy of the film, the Rockefeller Archive Center has 6 black-and-white stills taken from Malaria, including the ones noted (Rockefeller Foundation Photos, Box 19, 1001, Folder 4666-Malaria film, prints from). These prints date from 1923 and 1924. Other malaria films produced in the 1930s include 300 feet of 35-mm footage of Sir Ronald Ross (1930); a pair of American-made silent films, Mosquitoes (1933), produced by the US Department of Agriculture, and Malaria (1934), produced by General Business Films for the Winthrop Chemical Company (New York) and the State Board of Health of Georgia; the clinical training films Microscopic Investigation of Anopheles (1935), The Life of a Mosquito (1935), and The Effect of Oil on Mosquito Larvae (1936), the latter an amateur effort; 2 German-language 35-mm features on the struggle against malaria (both produced in 1937); and a newsreel sequence (1937) in Hebrew, showing insecticide being sprayed and swamps being drained to combat malaria in Cheffar Emek, part of modern-day Israel.
48. I screened this footage at the Imperial War Museum (3 examples of newsreel footage produced by Gaumont, War Office/New Era Film and US Signal Corps in 1916 and 1919, all showing soldiers wearing mosquito hoods) and the British Film Institute (The Mosquito, The War on the Mosquito, the Nepalese amateur feature on the Ross Institute, and the 35-mm footage of Ronald Ross). Both the Imperial War Museum and the British Film Institute have their film archives in London, England.
49. Christine Beadle and Stephen L. Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces at War: World War I Through the Vietnam Conflict," Clinical Infectious Diseases 16 (1993): 321.
50. C.W. Hays, "US Army and Malaria Control in World War II," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 49.
51. Beadle and Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces," 320. It is important to remember that the United States entered World War II only after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941, making these figures even more dramatic.
52. Beadle and Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces," 320. They also cite M.E. Condon-Rall's article, "Allied Co-operation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513.
53. Beadle and Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces," 320. They also cite M.E. Condon-Rall's article, "Allied Co-operation in Malaria Prevention and Control: The World War II Southwest Pacific Experience," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 46 (1991): 493-513.
54. Beadle and Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces," 321.
55. Hays, "US Army and Malaria Control," 49. The same quotation can be found in Beadle and Hoffman, "History of Malaria in the United States Naval Forces," 321. Russell, a malariologist, was seconded from the Rockefeller Foundation to become the chief of the Tropical Disease Control Section. Hays outlines how, in October 1942, the US surgeon general of the army set up a new malaria control infrastructure that included malariologists; malaria survey units made up of 2 Sanitary Corps officers, a parasitologist and an entomologist who "supervised eleven enlisted men" doing parasitological and entomological surveys; and malaria control units made up of a sanitary engineer and 11 enlisted men who carried out mosquito control projects. By April 1945, there were, Hays notes, 54 malariologists, 63 malaria survey units, and 143 malaria control units throughout the Caribbean, Central Africa, China-Burma-India, Europe, the Middle East, and the South Pacific and Southwest Pacific; "US Army and Malaria Control," 49.
56. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
57. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
58. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
59. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
60. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
61. Other films in this period are newsreel pieces, including The Enemy Japan (1943), part of the March of Time series; Warwork News No. 49 (1944), by British Paramount News, showing German prisoners of war's blood being tested for the malaria parasite; British Movietone News (October 19, 1944); War Pictorial News No. 219 (1945), showing DDT being sprayed; Welt im Film No. 10 (1945), part of the Allied Military Government's newsreel series, which shows delousing with DDT; and The March of Time, 10th Year, No. 13 (1945), produced by Time Inc (US), a brief bit of footage showing malaria research being carried out at Hebrew University.
62. The film is dated June 4, 1942, but catalogued as 1944 in the Imperial War Museum, London, England.
63. Daley and Vincy, Popular Education, 110.
64. This is one of a series of Spanish-language films, made by Disney, for the Office of the Co-ordinator of Inter-American Affairs, a post held by Nelson Rockefeller at the time. The 9-minute, color film outlines how flies, mosquitoes, and ticks spread disease as well as showing how to destroy all 3 vectors with improved sanitation, water drainage, and boiling water for clothes washing.
65. This film is one in a series of 28 animated shorts featuring the soldier's Everyman, Private Snafu. Private Snafu Versus Malaria Mike was produced by Chuck Jones, who developed the character of Snafu from an idea by renowned Hollywood director Frank Capra. Capra was head of the Armed Forces Motion Picture Unit, which was set up in 1942. Col Capra decided to use animation for informational films, and the Snafu series was produced by some of the best animators, including Jones, Ted Geisel (Dr Seuss), Friz Frelang, and Bolo Clampett. In this film, Malaria Mike, "alias Amos Quito," tries to bite Snafu but is thwarted by Snafu's clothing, mosquito repellent, and bed netting. Malaria Mike finally hits his target when Snafu sticks his bare bottom outside the bed netting. The short ends with the message that the army offers men everything they need to ward off malaria: Atabrine, GI repellent, and "good old fashioned horse sense! Wish I'd used them," laments the dead" Snafu.
66. Borne on Two Wings uses color plates and limited movement of elements combined with camera movement, subtitles, and music to move the story along. Although it is not animated in the same way as the Disney films-it uses hundreds of individual animation cells-I include it in this group because it does not use actors or real images.
67. "Screen Salesman," Time, June 14, 1943, 46.
68. Ibid, 48.
69. This is another way that Rockefeller interests manifested themselves in malaria filmmaking.
70. "Screen Salesman," 48. One of the 2 images accompanying the article shows "Happy" the dwarf screwing in a screen on a door (p. 46).
71. There are, of the malaria films I have found to date, 12 films or film clips for which a date is unknown. One is titled Malaria Discipline, and only reel 4 is kept at the Imperial War Museum film archives in London, England. The others are part of a list of public health films found at the Rockefeller Archive Center (RF, RG 1 A83, 100, Films 1941-45, Box R 1996, list of films on various public health topics, "VI. Mosquitoes, Malaria, & Malaria Control," 16-24) and include How the Mosquito Spreads Disease (16-mm, single-reel, black-and-white silent film); Malaria in New Mexico (2-reel silent film); Stung! By Amos Quito (Mosquito) (16-mm, black-and-white silent film); and 8 state health department-sponsored or private company-produced films dealing with mosquito breeding places and mosquito control by drainage and screening. The states involved were Alabama (3 films listed), California (2), Georgia (1), and New Jersey (2).
72. The first Shell Malaria film was made in 1931. A viewing copy of this film has yet to surface. Another film produced in the 1930s, also titled Malaria, is listed as being made "about 1939," and the distributor is said to be the "Dutch Shell Oil Co., office in New York City." The abstract for this 1939 film states that "this picture is one of the best general pictures yet produced on the general topic of malaria" and goes on to cite the "excellent scientific supervision," "particularly good" 3-dimensional animation, and "sequences on mosquito oviposition, and certain humorous incidents add the proper flavour of humanity.... There is, naturally, a conspicuous lack of enthusiasm about paris green as a larvicide..." (Rockefeller Archive Center [RAC], RF, RG 1 A83, 100, Films 1941-45, Box R 1996, list of films on various public health topics, "VI. Mosquitoes, Malaria, & Malaria Control," 22). This 16-mm single reel with sound may be an edited version of the 1931 Shell Malaria film, the 1941 film, or a separate film altogether, hence I choose to count the 1941 film as the definitive second Shell film.
73. Peter J. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria, " in The Anthropology of Infectious Disease: International Health Perspectives, ed. Marcia C. Inhorn and Peter J. Brown (London: Gordon and Breach, 2000), 131-132.
74. The original soundtrack is said to be "probably in Portuguese, " and "Every student of malariology ought to see this film from the standpoint of being impressed with the power of malaria to overwhelm a population. . . ." (RAC, RF, RG 1 A83, 100, Films 1941-45, Box R 1996, list of films on various public health topics, "VI. Mosquitoes, Malaria, & Malaria Control," 18). I have seen a 1950 English-language copy of this film and can confirm its value as an historical record of the impact of the disease (14000 to 20000 died in the first 6 months of 1938 in the Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte regions of Brazil) and the prevention strategy employed (more than 4000 employed at the height of the eradication program, which relied mostly on spraying Paris green-288 tons used in 2 years).
75. The list of malaria films in the Rockefeller Foundation files cites the production date as 1942. It also lists a subtitle for this film: "Microscopic Pathological Circulatory Physiology of Rhesus Monkeys During Acute Plasmodium knowlesi Malaria"; it gives the authors as Drs Warren K. Stratman-Thomas, Theodore S. Eliot, and Melvin H. Knisley and Mr Edward H. Black. All but 3 scenes are done through a microscope (RAC, RF, RG 1 A83, 100, Films 1941-45, Box R 1996, list of films on various public health topics, "VI. Mosquitoes, Malaria, & Malaria Control," 22-23).
76. There is an earlier, longer film made by the Health and Safety Department of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Produced in 1941, Malaria Control in the Tennessee Valley runs 40 minutes and is in color. It was said to give "a detailed picture of the methods used by the TVA to control mosquitoes and combat malaria ... especially as it relates to impounded waters." (RAC, RF, RG 1 A83, 100, Films 1941-45, Box R 1996, list of films on various public health topics, "VI. Mosquitoes, Malaria, & Malaria Control," 21).
77. For a summary of the history of DDT, see D.H. Stapleton, "The Dawn of DDT and Its Experimental Use by the Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico, 1943-1952," Parassitologia 40 (1998): 149-150. Regarding use of DDT in Italy, see also Stapleton, "Technology and Malaria Control, 1930-1960: The Career of Rockefeller Foundation Engineer Frederick W. Knipe," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 65.
78. For a summary of the history of DDT, see D.H. Stapleton, "The Dawn of DDT and Its Experimental Use by the Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico, 1943-1952," Parassitologia 40 (1998): 149-150. Regarding use of DDT in Italy, see also Stapleton, "Technology and Malaria Control, 1930-1960: The Career of Rockefeller Foundation Engineer Frederick W. Knipe," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 65.
79. D.J. Bradley, "Malaria-Whence and Whither?" in Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, 20. The chart (Table 4) depicts the 1940s ("Control"), 1950s ("Eradication: Attack"), 1960s ("Eradication: Consolidation"), 1970s ("Resurgence"), 1980s ("Chaos"), and 1990s ("Hope"). Bradley's table is also reproduced in M.J. Dobson, M. Malowany, and D.H. Stapleton, " Editorial," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 3.
80. D.J. Bradley, "Malaria-Whence and Whither?" in Malaria: Waiting for the Vaccine, 20. The chart (Table 4) depicts the 1940s ("Control"), 1950s ("Eradication: Attack"), 1960s ("Eradication: Consolidation"), 1970s ("Resurgence"), 1980s ("Chaos"), and 1990s ("Hope"). Bradley's table is also reproduced in M.J. Dobson, M. Malowany, and D.H. Stapleton, " Editorial," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 3.
81. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria," 127.
82. Ibid, 127. As Brown explains, the global eradication program was based on the use of larvicides and insecticides throughout the entire world, except sub-Saharan Africa, at a cost of approximately $519 million over the first 5 years. The original vision was that the program would take 8 years, ending in 1966. Brown writes that "throughout the 1960s malaria eradication campaigns resulted in impressive declines in malaria morbidity" despite technical and administrative problems and no provision being made for further scientific research (pp. 127-128).
83. The enthusiasm and optimism is also reflected in the titles of contemporary works such as P.F. Russell's Man's Mastery of Malaria (London: Oxford University Press, 1955).
84. Both the 1941 and 1959 versions of Shell's Malaria were black and white and 20 minutes long. The 1941 version was divided into 3 sections: Parasite, Carrier, and Control. By 1959, the third section had been changed and a fourth section added: Parasite, Carrier, Weapons, and Eradication. Where possible, footage from the 1941 version was reused in the later film; making a film using recycled footage from a previous version was a cost-effective investment in employee health.
85. Shell produced or coproduced at least 2 other films in this period: The Sardinian Project (1949) was a coproduction with ERLAAS, and there is also 83 feet of malaria footage on reel 1 of a feature titled The Rival World (1955), held at the British Film Institute in London, England. Interestingly, Standard Oil Co (NJ), a Rockefeller-owned oil company, also produced a film, Medical Servicefor Industry (1954), that includes malaria footage.
86. Renowned documentary filmmaker Paul Rotha, in Documentary Film (New York: Hastings House, 1970), tells how the first United Nations agency to sponsor films directly was the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration: "As soon as the war ended and the United Nations organization established on a firm basis, a central Films Division was set up in New York within the U.N. Department of Public Information." He goes on to explain that "the purpose of the programme was to contribute a number of internationally valid films, and at the same time stimulate individual countries to further production." Drawing from this example, Rotha cites Adventure in Sardinia as one of many joint enterprise productions produced under the auspices of the Economic Co-operation Administration's film project.
87. The Sardinian Project lists renowned documentary filmmaker Arthur Elton as producer and Jack Chambers and W. Suschitzy as directors. Adventure in Sardinia gives Elton and Chambers production and direction credits and adds Peter Baylis to that duo. Adventure also adds Maurice Harley as editor, no doubt acknowledging his role in trimming down and repackaging the original 1949 film.
88. Malariologist P.C.C. Garnham reflected on the epidemic years later: "A severe epidemic of malaria affected the district in 1946, with the exception of the DDT-treated zone, where only nine deaths thought to be due to malaria occurred, as compared with 110 in the untreated control area. After spraying, the parasite rate was reduced by 50 per cent and the anopheline (A. gambiae) density by 99 per cent in the treated area." Garnham, "DDT Versus Malaria, Kenya 1946-Commentary on a Film," in Health in Tropical Africa During the Colonial Period, ed. E.E. Sabben-Clare, D.J. Bradley, and K. Kirkwood (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 64.
89. Garnham, "DDT Versus Malaria, Kenya 1946," 65. Among the truths that were fictionalized was the fact that it was the tribal headman's wife who died from malaria; in the film, this was changed to a sick child who recovered.
90. The English-language version is narrated by Heisch and includes a contextually strange soundtrack with the tune Glow Worm being played during the porridge scene.
91. The group that appeared in the film were Garnham, Heisch, entomologist J.O. Harper, team leader of the Division of Insect-Borne Diseases R.B. Highton, and Dr Bartlett, medical officer of the Kenya Medical Department; Garnham, "DDT Versus Malaria, Kenya 1946," 65.
92. Newsreels were dying out because of the growing popularity of television as a way of disseminating news, particularly in North America.
93. This is D.J. Bradley's viewpoint. The 1960s were the decade of "Eradication: Consolidation" and the 1970s the decade of "Resurgence," as reproduced in Dobson et al., "Editorial," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 3.
94. Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, 1. Harrison, on page 254, says that 1977 estimates put the number of recorded cases of malaria in India at between 30 million and 50 million.
95. R.S. Desowitz, Table 1, "The Malaria Vaccine: Seventy Years of the Great Immune Hope," Parassitologia 42 (2000): 175.
96. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria." 129. In 1991, DDT was still being produced in India, Indonesia, and Italy as well as Mexico; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 18. Today, use of DDT is completely banned in at least 26 countries and severely restricted in 12 others; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 19.
97. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria." 129. In 1991, DDT was still being produced in India, Indonesia, and Italy as well as Mexico; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 18. Today, use of DDT is completely banned in at least 26 countries and severely restricted in 12 others; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 19.
98. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria." 129. In 1991, DDT was still being produced in India, Indonesia, and Italy as well as Mexico; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 18. Today, use of DDT is completely banned in at least 26 countries and severely restricted in 12 others; Pesticides News 40 (June 1998): 19.
99. It is reportedly only manufactured today in China and India, specifically to control malaria; "Doing It Without DDT," 2, available at http://www. inforchangeindia.org/toxictours09.jsp, accessed December 3, 2002. A report from the WHO states that "twenty-two of the world's poorest countries rely on DDT"; "Reducing Reliance on DDT" brochure, 2, available at www.who.org, accessed December 3, 2002.
100. It is reportedly only manufactured today in China and India, specifically to control malaria; "Doing It Without DDT," 2, available at http://www. inforchangeindia.org/toxictours09.jsp, accessed December 3, 2002. A report from the WHO states that "twenty-two of the world's poorest countries rely on DDT"; "Reducing Reliance on DDT" brochure, 2, available at www.who.org, accessed December 3, 2002.
101. These are all American-made films from 5 to 12 minutes long, with the exception of the 29-minute Basic Epidemiologic and Clinicopathologic Aspects of Malaria (1968) and the 51-minute Blood and Tissue Protozoa: Malaria (1976).
102. Between 1975 and 1981, a series of films on the lives and work of 6 researchers were made: L. T. Coggeshall (1975); G. Robert Coatney (1979); Martin D. Young (1979); William A. Sodeman, Sr. (1980); J. Austin Kerr (1981); and Wilbur G. Downs (1981). These biographies average an hour in length, with the exception of the film on Kerr, which runs 30 minutes. The National Medical Audiovisual Center, in cooperation with the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, made the films on Coatney and Young, and in cooperation with Alpha Omega Alpha produced the biography of Coggeshall. The Centers for Disease Control, in cooperation with the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, produced the films on Downs, Kerr, and Sodeman.
103. Coggeshall was interviewed by Bowers on February 15, 1971, as part of the Alpha Omega Alpha film series. With an MD degree and a degree in medical physiology, Coggeshall took up internships with the Rockefeller Foundation and University of Chicago. During World War II, he was called up to lead the Institute of Tropical Diseases.
104. Garnham, "DDT Versus Malaria, Kenya 1946," 65.
105. Brown, "Culture and the Global Resurgence of Malaria," 120-121.
106. The 1985 version, which had been expanded to 29 minutes, was available in 4 languages (English, French, Latin American Spanish, and Arabic) and in 16-mm film format and on videocassette.
107. In 1998, the Wellcome Trust also made available a CD-ROM set on tropical diseases, including one on malaria.