Certifying forests and factories: States, social movements, and the rise of private regulation in the apparel and forest products fields

Politics and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 433-464

  Bartley, Tim ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Certification; Corporate social responsibility; Deforestation; Private regulation; Sweatshops

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041884922     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329203254863     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Ian Ayres and John Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Neil Gunningham and Peter Graobosky, with Darren Sinclair, Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); and Sol and Picciotto and Ruth Mayne, eds., Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization (New York: St. Martin's, 1999).
2. Ian Ayres and John Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Neil Gunningham and Peter Graobosky, with Darren Sinclair, Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); and Sol and Picciotto and Ruth Mayne, eds., Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization (New York: St. Martin's, 1999).
3. Ian Ayres and John Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Neil Gunningham and Peter Graobosky, with Darren Sinclair, Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); and Sol and Picciotto and Ruth Mayne, eds., Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization (New York: St. Martin's, 1999).
4. This is based on a count of articles that mention "certification," "monitoring," or a specific organization engaging in these activities (e.g., mention of the Forest Stewardship Council or of Nike hiring external auditors).
5. Although similar processes have occurred in Europe, this study is restricted to programs operating in North America.
6. Jason McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace: A Sociological Assessment of British Efforts to Build Markets for NGO-Certified Wood Products" (Berkeley: Center for Culture, Organization, and Politics, University of California, 2000).
7. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
8. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
9. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
10. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
11. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
12. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
13. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
14. Jill Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract: Private Monitoring and Labor Relations in the Global Apparel Industry (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1999); Dara O'Rourke, "Outsourcing Regulation: Analyzing Non-Governmental Systems of Labor Standards and Monitoring," Policy Studies Journal (forthcoming, 2003); Charles Sabel, Dara O'Rourke, and Archon Fung, "Ratcheting Labor Standards: Regulation for Continuous Improvement in the Global Workplace" (unpublished paper, 2001); Nina Ascoly, Joris Oldenziel, and Ineke Zeldenrust, "Overview of Recent Developments on Monitoring and Verification in the Garment and Sportswear Industry in Europe" (unpublished manuscript, SOMO, Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. 2001); Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council as a New Para-Regulatory Social Form," in E. Meidinger, G. Elliot, and G. Oesten, eds., The Social and Political Dimensions of Forest Certification (Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany: Forstbuch, 2002); McNichol, "Contesting Governance in the Global Marketplace; Benjamin Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention," (unpublished paper, Yale University, 2002); and Kristiina A. Vogt, Bruce C. Larson, John C. Gordon, Daniel J. Vogt, and Anna Fanzeres, Forest Certification: Roots, Issues, Challenges, and Benefits (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000).
15. Gary Gereffi, Ronie Garcia-Johnson, and Erika Sasser, "The NGO-Industrial Complex" Foreign Policy (July/August 2001); and Virginia Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector: Industry Self-Regulation in a Global Economy (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001).
16. Gary Gereffi, Ronie Garcia-Johnson, and Erika Sasser, "The NGO-Industrial Complex" Foreign Policy (July/August 2001); and Virginia Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector: Industry Self-Regulation in a Global Economy (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001).
17. Gereffi et al., "The NGO-industrial Complex."
18. Interview no. 26.
19. Interview no. 15.
20. Elisabeth Clemens and James Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25(1999): 441-66; and Robert Bates, Avner Grief, Margaret Levi, Jean Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry Weingast, eds., Analytic Narratives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
21. Elisabeth Clemens and James Cook, "Politics and Institutionalism: Explaining Durability and Change," Annual Review of Sociology 25(1999): 441-66; and Robert Bates, Avner Grief, Margaret Levi, Jean Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry Weingast, eds., Analytic Narratives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
22. Neil Fligstein, "Markets as Politics: A Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions," American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 656-73; Paul DiMaggio, "Constructing an Organizational Field as a Professional Project: U.S. Art Museums, 1920-1940," in W.W. Powell and P. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Hayagreeva Rao, "Caveat Emptor: The Construction of Nonprofit Consumer Watchdog Organizations," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 912-61.
23. Neil Fligstein, "Markets as Politics: A Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions," American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 656-73; Paul DiMaggio, "Constructing an Organizational Field as a Professional Project: U.S. Art Museums, 1920-1940," in W.W. Powell and P. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Hayagreeva Rao, "Caveat Emptor: The Construction of Nonprofit Consumer Watchdog Organizations," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 912-61.
24. Neil Fligstein, "Markets as Politics: A Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions," American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 656-73; Paul DiMaggio, "Constructing an Organizational Field as a Professional Project: U.S. Art Museums, 1920-1940," in W.W. Powell and P. DiMaggio, eds., The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); and Hayagreeva Rao, "Caveat Emptor: The Construction of Nonprofit Consumer Watchdog Organizations," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 912-61.
25. Michael Hechter, "The Emergence of Cooperative Social Institutions," in M. Hechter, K.D. Opp, and R. Wippler, eds., Social Institutions: Their Emergence, Maintenance and Effects (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
26. Michael Hechter, "The Emergence of Cooperative Social Institutions," in M. Hechter, K.D. Opp, and R. Wippler, eds., Social Institutions: Their Emergence, Maintenance and Effects (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
27. Rao, "Caveat Emptor"; and Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, Organizational Ecology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
28. Rao, "Caveat Emptor"; and Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, Organizational Ecology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
29. Oliver Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (New York: Free Press, 1985).
30. John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, "Institutional Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1977): 340-63; and David John Frank, Ann Hironaka, and Evan Schofer, "The Nation State and the Natural Environment, 1900-1995," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 96-116.
31. John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, "Institutional Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1977): 340-63; and David John Frank, Ann Hironaka, and Evan Schofer, "The Nation State and the Natural Environment, 1900-1995," American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 96-116.
32. Gisele De Meur and Dirk Berg-Schlosser, "Comparing Political Systems: Establishing Similarities and Dissimilarities," European Journal of Political Research 26 (1994): 193-219.
33. Charles Ragin, Fuzzy-Set Social Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
34. As Stone argues, labor issues differ from environmental ones in that the main political challengers (labor) depend on capital in a way that environmentalists do not. See Katherine Stone, "Labour in the Global Economy: Four Approaches to Transnational Labour Regulation," in W. Bratton, J. McCahery, S. Picciotto, and C. Scott, eds., International Regulatory Competition and Coordination (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 445-77. In addition, the benefits of environmental regulation are typically much more dispersed than the benefits of labor regulation. For more on the implications of this, see James Q. Wilson, "The Politics of Regulation" in J. Q. Wilson, ed., The Politics of Regulation (New York: Basic Books, 1980).
35. As Stone argues, labor issues differ from environmental ones in that the main political challengers (labor) depend on capital in a way that environmentalists do not. See Katherine Stone, "Labour in the Global Economy: Four Approaches to Transnational Labour Regulation," in W. Bratton, J. McCahery, S. Picciotto, and C. Scott, eds., International Regulatory Competition and Coordination (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 445-77. In addition, the benefits of environmental regulation are typically much more dispersed than the benefits of labor regulation. For more on the implications of this, see James Q. Wilson, "The Politics of Regulation" in J. Q. Wilson, ed., The Politics of Regulation (New York: Basic Books, 1980).
36. John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) ; and George Stigler, "The Theory of Economic Regulation," Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2, no. 1 (1971): 3-21.
37. John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) ; and George Stigler, "The Theory of Economic Regulation," Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2, no. 1 (1971): 3-21.
38. Sabel et al., "Ratcheting Labor Standards"; Esbenshade, "The Social Accountability Contract"; Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance"; and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council."
39. Sabel et al., "Ratcheting Labor Standards"; Esbenshade, "The Social Accountability Contract"; Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance"; and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council."
40. Sabel et al., "Ratcheting Labor Standards"; Esbenshade, "The Social Accountability Contract"; Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance"; and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council."
41. Sabel et al., "Ratcheting Labor Standards"; Esbenshade, "The Social Accountability Contract"; Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance"; and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council."
42. S. J. Gould and R. C. Lewontin, "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptionist Programme," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 205B (1979): 581-98; and Gerald Berk, Alternative Tracks: The Constitution of American Industrial Order, 1965-1917 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
43. S. J. Gould and R. C. Lewontin, "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptionist Programme," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 205B (1979): 581-98; and Gerald Berk, Alternative Tracks: The Constitution of American Industrial Order, 1965-1917 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
44. Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State? Reagan, Thatcher, and the Politics of Retrenchment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
45. While much of the critical discourse surrounding these initiatives has focused on corporate dominance of certification and monitoring, it is striking how few companies were involved in the early development of these programs. In fact, mass industry involvement did not occur until later, as industry associations founded competing, weaker bodies. This by no means invalidates the corporate dominance critique, but reminds us that corporations were mainly late adopters rather than innovators.
46. Interview nos. 22, 29, 31.
47. Interview no. 34.
48. See Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance," and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council," on the legitimation and marketing of forest certification.
49. See Cashore, "Non-State Global Governance," and McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council," on the legitimation and marketing of forest certification.
50. Interview nos. 10, 26, 30.
51. Deborah Leipziger, SA8000: The Definitive Guide to the New Social Standard (London: Financial Times/Prentice Hall, 2001); and interview nos. 9, 13, 30.
52. For more on these debates, see Archon Fung, Dara O'Rourke, and Charles Sabel, "Realizing Labor Standards," Boston Review (February/March 2001) and the responses to this article.
53. These were coded using the Lexis-Nexus database and included alternate forms of the words (i.e., "rain forest" in addition to "rainforest").
54. Interview no. 35.
55. Interview nos. 15, 16.
56. Christopher Upton and Stephen Bass, The Forest Certification Handbook (Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press, 1996), 139.
57. Ibid., 139. Notice that both of these claims used the term sustained yield rather than just sustainable or sustainable development. Forest products producers have been appropriating sustainability rhetoric into rationales for increased production since the 1930s, and the term sustainability remains one of the most open and contested terms in environmental discourse.
58. World Wildlife Fund, Truth or Trickery: Timber Labelling Past and Future (London: World Wildlife Fund, UK, 1994), 7. This report included results from a 1992 follow up study that still found a number of empty claims like "timber from managed forests," "sustained yield," and "for each tree felled, more are planted."
59. Simon Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification," (Friends of the Earth, www.foe.co.uk, 1995), 1.
60. Interview no. 16.
61. Interview no. 15.
62. Nels Johnson and Bruce Cabarle, Surviving the Cut: Natural Forest Management in the Humid Tropics (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 1993).
63. Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Richard Donovan, "Role of NGOs," in Viana et al., eds., Certification of Forest Products (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996), 93-110.
64. Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Richard Donovan, "Role of NGOs," in Viana et al., eds., Certification of Forest Products (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1996), 93-110.
65. Interview no. 35.
66. Chris Maser and Walter Smith, Forest Certification in Sustainable Development: Heating the Landscape (Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, 2001).
67. Jason McNichol, "The Forest Stewardship Council," and "Contesting Governance."
68. Michael B. Jenkins and Emily T. Smith, The Business of Sustainable Forestry (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999). See McNichol, "Contesting Governance," for more on how loosely coordinated protests against retailers and the resulting buyers groups helped build a market for certified wood.
69. Michael B. Jenkins and Emily T. Smith, The Business of Sustainable Forestry (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999). See McNichol, "Contesting Governance," for more on how loosely coordinated protests against retailers and the resulting buyers groups helped build a market for certified wood.
70. Pamela Varley, ed., The Sweatshop Quandary: Corporate Responsibility on the Global Frontier (Washington, DC: Investor Responsibility Research Center, 1998), 8.
71. Companies had been creating corporate ethics codes since the 1980s, but these tended to focus on internal ethical issues rather than setting standards for suppliers or including provisions about labor conditions. See Ronald E. Berenbeim, Corporate Ethics, Research report no. 900 (New York: The Conference Board, 1987).
72. John McCormick and Marc Levinson, "The Supply Police," Newsweek 121 no. 7 (1993): 48.
73. Janelle Diller, "A Social Conscience in the Global Marketplace? Labour Dimensions of Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Investor Initiatives," International Labor Review 138, no. 2 (1999); International Labor Organization, "Overview of Global Developments and Office Activities Concerning Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Other Private Sector Initiatives Addressing Labour Issues" (www.ilo.org, 1998); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and U.S. Department of Labor, The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor Problem? (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, 1996).
74. Janelle Diller, "A Social Conscience in the Global Marketplace? Labour Dimensions of Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Investor Initiatives," International Labor Review 138, no. 2 (1999); International Labor Organization, "Overview of Global Developments and Office Activities Concerning Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Other Private Sector Initiatives Addressing Labour Issues" (www.ilo.org, 1998); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and U.S. Department of Labor, The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor Problem? (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, 1996).
75. Janelle Diller, "A Social Conscience in the Global Marketplace? Labour Dimensions of Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Investor Initiatives," International Labor Review 138, no. 2 (1999); International Labor Organization, "Overview of Global Developments and Office Activities Concerning Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Other Private Sector Initiatives Addressing Labour Issues" (www.ilo.org, 1998); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and U.S. Department of Labor, The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor Problem? (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, 1996).
76. Janelle Diller, "A Social Conscience in the Global Marketplace? Labour Dimensions of Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Investor Initiatives," International Labor Review 138, no. 2 (1999); International Labor Organization, "Overview of Global Developments and Office Activities Concerning Codes of Conduct, Social Labeling and Other Private Sector Initiatives Addressing Labour Issues" (www.ilo.org, 1998); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and U.S. Department of Labor, The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor Problem? (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, 1996).
77. Bob Jeffcott and Lynda Yanz, "Voluntary Codes of Conduct: Do They Strengthen or Undermine Government Regulation and Worker Organizing?" (unpublished paper, Maquila Solidarity Network). For more on the symbolic versus material consequences of codes, see Steve Frenkel, "Globalization, Athletic Footwear Commodity Chains and Employment Relations in China," Organization Studies 22, no. 4 (2001): 531-62.
78. Bob Jeffcott and Lynda Yanz, "Voluntary Codes of Conduct: Do They Strengthen or Undermine Government Regulation and Worker Organizing?" (unpublished paper, Maquila Solidarity Network). For more on the symbolic versus material consequences of codes, see Steve Frenkel, "Globalization, Athletic Footwear Commodity Chains and Employment Relations in China," Organization Studies 22, no. 4 (2001): 531-62.
79. M. Burns, M. Forstater, D. Osgood, A. Mong, and S. Zadek, Open Trading: Options for Effective Monitoring of Corporate Codes (London: New Economics Foundation/Catholic institute for International Relations, 1997); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and interview no. 33.
80. M. Burns, M. Forstater, D. Osgood, A. Mong, and S. Zadek, Open Trading: Options for Effective Monitoring of Corporate Codes (London: New Economics Foundation/Catholic institute for International Relations, 1997); Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary; and interview no. 33.
81. Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 306-7; and Independent Monitoring Working Group, "IMWG Summary Draft" (unpublished report, 2002). This organization has recently been accredited as a monitor for the Fair Labor Association.
82. Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 306-7; and Independent Monitoring Working Group, "IMWG Summary Draft" (unpublished report, 2002). This organization has recently been accredited as a monitor for the Fair Labor Association.
83. Interview no. 9; Dara O'Rourke, "Smoke from a Hired Gun: A Critique of Nike's Labor and Environmental Auditing in Vietnam as Performed by Ernst & Young" (Transnational Resource and Action Center, 1997).
84. O'Rourke, "Smoke from a Hired Gun," 6-7.
85. Randy Shaw, Reclaiming America: Nike, Clean Air, and the New National Activism, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); and Campaign for Labor Rights, "Newsletter #9" (September-November 1997).
86. Randy Shaw, Reclaiming America: Nike, Clean Air, and the New National Activism, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); and Campaign for Labor Rights, "Newsletter #9" (September-November 1997).
87. Shaw, Reclaiming America; and Campaign for Labor Rights, "Newsletter #9."
88. Shaw, Reclaiming America; and Campaign for Labor Rights, "Newsletter #9."
89. Although government support was crucial to the rise of both forest certification and labor standards certification, government actors played more direct roles in the latter case, with the U.S. Department of Labor providing much of the original impetus for the formation of the Apparel Industry Partnership and Fair Labor Association.
90. Johnson and Cabarle, Surviving the Cut; Conrad B. MacKerron and Douglas G. Cogan, Business in the Rainforests: Corporations, Deforestation and Sustainability(Washington, DC: Investor Responsibility Research Center, 1993).
91. Johnson and Cabarle, Surviving the Cut; Conrad B. MacKerron and Douglas G. Cogan, Business in the Rainforests: Corporations, Deforestation and Sustainability(Washington, DC: Investor Responsibility Research Center, 1993).
92. Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management"; Dudley et al., Bad Harvest?; Christopher Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective (Jakarta, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research, 2000).
93. Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management"; Dudley et al., Bad Harvest?; Christopher Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective (Jakarta, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research, 2000).
94. Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management"; Dudley et al., Bad Harvest?; Christopher Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective (Jakarta, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research, 2000).
95. Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management"; Dudley et al., Bad Harvest?; Christopher Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective (Jakarta, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research, 2000).
96. Interview #18; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective.
97. Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management."
98. Interview no. 18.
99. Interview nos. 18, 34, 17.
100. Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label.
101. Interview no. 32.
102. Robert Ross, "Sweatshop Police," The Nation (9 September 2001) ; Frederick Abernathy, John Dunlop, Janice Hammond, and David Weil, A Stitch in Time: Lean Retailing and the Transformation of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Apparel and Textile Industries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); and interviews nos. 32, 10.
103. Robert Ross, "Sweatshop Police," The Nation (9 September 2001) ; Frederick Abernathy, John Dunlop, Janice Hammond, and David Weil, A Stitch in Time: Lean Retailing and the Transformation of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Apparel and Textile Industries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); and interviews nos. 32, 10.
104. Interview no. 14; Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label.
105. Interview no. 14.
106. Interview nos. 14, 32.
107. Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract.
108. Stanley Levy, Testimony, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Education and the Workforce, American Worker at a Crossroads Project (8 May 1998); Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label; and interview no. 5.
109. Stanley Levy, Testimony, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Education and the Workforce, American Worker at a Crossroads Project (8 May 1998); Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label; and interview no. 5.
110. Joanna Ramey, "10 Makers, Retailers Sign on for Clinton's Anti-Sweatshop Panel," WWD (5 August 1996), 1-2; Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label.
111. Joanna Ramey, "10 Makers, Retailers Sign on for Clinton's Anti-Sweatshop Panel," WWD (5 August 1996), 1-2; Bonacich and Appelbaum, Behind the Label.
112. Susan S. Black, "Ante Up." Bobbin (September 1996), 2.
113. Esbenshade, The Social Accountability Contract.
114. Joanna Ramey "U.S. Officials Plan to Inspect Foreign Factories' Practices," WWD (3 September 1996), 2.
115. John Zaracostas, "Reich: Make Labeling a Worldwide Plan," WWD (13 June 1996), 13.
116. Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary, 38; Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector.
117. Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary, 38; Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector.
118. Joanna Ramey, "ILO Head Calls for Label: Sweatshop-Free Countries," WWD (15 May 1997), 18.
119. John Zaracostas, "White House Insists on Efforts for Global Standards of Labor," WWD (13 June 1997), 18; and Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary.
120. John Zaracostas, "White House Insists on Efforts for Global Standards of Labor," WWD (13 June 1997), 18; and Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary.
121. Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector.
122. Interview no. 30.
123. Interview nos. 9, 13.
124. Interview nos. 5, 10.
125. Interview 12.
126. Interview nos. 5, 12.
127. Rachel Crossley, "A Review of Global Forest Management Certification Initiatives: Political and Institutional Aspects" (paper for the conference on Econonomic, Social and Political Issues in Certification of Forest Management, May 1996, Malaysia, UBC-UPM).
128. Fred P. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime (New York: St. Martin's, 1998); Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective; and Steven Johnson, "ITTO's Role in Building the Foundations for Assessing and Certifying Sustainable Tropical Forest Management" (www.pfhq.com.au, 2000).
129. Fred P. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime (New York: St. Martin's, 1998); Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective; and Steven Johnson, "ITTO's Role in Building the Foundations for Assessing and Certifying Sustainable Tropical Forest Management" (www.pfhq.com.au, 2000).
130. Fred P. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime (New York: St. Martin's, 1998); Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective; and Steven Johnson, "ITTO's Role in Building the Foundations for Assessing and Certifying Sustainable Tropical Forest Management" (www.pfhq.com.au, 2000).
131. Fred P. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime (New York: St. Martin's, 1998); Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective; and Steven Johnson, "ITTO's Role in Building the Foundations for Assessing and Certifying Sustainable Tropical Forest Management" (www.pfhq.com.au, 2000).
132. Fred P. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime (New York: St. Martin's, 1998); Counsell, "Briefing: Timber: Eco-Labelling and Certification"; Vogt et al., Forest Certification; Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective; and Steven Johnson, "ITTO's Role in Building the Foundations for Assessing and Certifying Sustainable Tropical Forest Management" (www.pfhq.com.au, 2000).
133. Interview no. 35.
134. Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime. As Gale points out, while timber exporting countries were the most vehement critics, representatives from North American and European governments may have been willing accomplices in the derailment of the certification proposal.
135. I b i d.
136. Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective; and Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime.
137. Elliott, Forest Certification From a Policy Network Perspective; and Gale, The Tropical Timber Trade Regime.
138. International Tropical Timber Organization, "Report of the International Tropical Timber Council, 7th session, Yokohama, 30 October-7 November 1989" (Yokohama, Japan, 1989), 25.
139. In 1993, a report commissioned by the ITTO recommended country-level certification as a more workable alternative to product or forest certification (see Johnson, "ITTO's Role"). Another report followed in 1994, which took a somewhat more optimistic view of forest certification.
140. Elliott, Forest Certification from a Policy Network Perspective, 48.
141. Interview no. 18.
142. Nigel Dudley, Jean-Paul Jeanrenaud, and Francis Sullivan, Bad Harvest? The Timber Trade and the Degradation of the World's Forests (London: Earthscan, 1999), 119; and Upton and Bass, The Forest Certification Handbook, 124.
143. Nigel Dudley, Jean-Paul Jeanrenaud, and Francis Sullivan, Bad Harvest? The Timber Trade and the Degradation of the World's Forests (London: Earthscan, 1999), 119; and Upton and Bass, The Forest Certification Handbook, 124.
144. Dudley et al., Bad Harvest; and Upton and Bass, The Forest Certification Handbook.
145. Dudley et al., Bad Harvest; and Upton and Bass, The Forest Certification Handbook.
146. Interview no. 27.
147. I b i d.
148. Johnson and Cabarle, Surviving the Cut, 51.
149. "List of Participants," FSC conference, Toronto, 1992; and interview no. 18.
150. Interview no. 27.
151. Terry Collingsworth, J. William Goold, and Pharis Harvey, "Time for a Global New Deal," Foreign Affairs 48, no. 1 (1994): 8-13.
152. I b i d.
153. John Braithwaite and Peter Drahos, Global Business Regulation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 235.
154. George Tsogas, Labor Regulation in a Global Economy (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001); Human Rights Watch, "Trading Away Rights: The Unfulfilled Promise of NAFTA's Labor Side Agreement," (www.hrw.org/reports/2001/nafta, 2001); and interview no. 30.
155. George Tsogas, Labor Regulation in a Global Economy (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001); Human Rights Watch, "Trading Away Rights: The Unfulfilled Promise of NAFTA's Labor Side Agreement," (www.hrw.org/reports/2001/nafta, 2001); and interview no. 30.
156. Labor unions and labor rights groups in the U.S. were also seeing another tooi get taken away at this point - the Generalized System of Preferences program. Under this trade preference program, labor groups could petition for reviews of countries' eligibility for preferential trade status, based on their labor conditions. It was an imperfect tool, but provided at least a limited amount of leverage for addressing international labor conditions. See Tsogas, Labor Regulation in a Global Economy; and interview no. 30.
157. Interview no. 30.
158. Kitty Krupat, "From War Zone to Free Trade Zone: A History of the National Labor Committee," in Andrew Ross, ed., No Sweat: Fashion, Free Trade and the Rights of Garment Workers (New York: Verso, 1997), 51-77; and Charles Kernaghan, "An Open Letter to the Students."
159. Kitty Krupat, "From War Zone to Free Trade Zone: A History of the National Labor Committee," in Andrew Ross, ed., No Sweat: Fashion, Free Trade and the Rights of Garment Workers (New York: Verso, 1997), 51-77; and Charles Kernaghan, "An Open Letter to the Students."
160. Interview no. 10; and Varley, The Sweatshop Quandary.
161. McNichol, "Contesting Governance."
162. I also used the pattern of referrals generated by my interviews to map a network of connections among key players (available from the author upon request). This map shows a striking, unbridged gap between individuals working on forest certification and those working on labor standards certification, which suggests that the two programs developed separately, not as a result of simple diffusion from one field to another.
163. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's recently finalized standards for organic agricultural products are an example of a governmental certification process, which only apply to producers outside the United States on a voluntary basis. See Mrill Ingram and Helen Ingram, "Creating Credible Edibles: The Alternative Agriculture Movement and Passage of U.S. Federal Organic Standards," in D. Meyer, V. Jenness, and H. Ingram, eds., Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy, and Democracy (forthcoming).
164. Max Weber, Economy and Society, edited by Roth and Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); Randall Collins, "Weber's Last Theory of Capitalism: A Systematization," American Sociological Review 45 (1980): 925-42; Fligstein, "Markets as Politics"; and W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
165. Max Weber, Economy and Society, edited by Roth and Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); Randall Collins, "Weber's Last Theory of Capitalism: A Systematization," American Sociological Review 45 (1980): 925-42; Fligstein, "Markets as Politics"; and W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
166. Max Weber, Economy and Society, edited by Roth and Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); Randall Collins, "Weber's Last Theory of Capitalism: A Systematization," American Sociological Review 45 (1980): 925-42; Fligstein, "Markets as Politics"; and W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
167. Max Weber, Economy and Society, edited by Roth and Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978); Randall Collins, "Weber's Last Theory of Capitalism: A Systematization," American Sociological Review 45 (1980): 925-42; Fligstein, "Markets as Politics"; and W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
168. Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Philip G. Cerny, "Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action," International Organization 49, no. 4 (1995): 595-625; and Kenichi Omae, The Borderless World (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
169. Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Philip G. Cerny, "Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action," International Organization 49, no. 4 (1995): 595-625; and Kenichi Omae, The Borderless World (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
170. Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Philip G. Cerny, "Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action," International Organization 49, no. 4 (1995): 595-625; and Kenichi Omae, The Borderless World (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
171. Peter Evans, "The Eclipse of the State? Reflections on Stateness in an Era of Globalization," World Politics 50 (1997): 62-87.
172. Susan Shapiro, "The Social Control of Impersonal Trust," American Journal of Sociology 93 (1987): 623-58. Shapiro talks about this process as the elaboration of higher-order "guardians of trust." Interestingly, to the extent that state agencies are becoming limited in their ability to serve this guardian role, we should expect to see an acceleration of this process, and the emergence of multiple layers of institutions that attempt to secure trust or credibility in some form.
173. Naomi Klein, No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies (New York: Picador, 1999).