Pregnant silence: (En)gendering Ireland's asylum space

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 301-322

  Lentin, Ronit ^a  

^a TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Asylum seekers; Citizenship; Ireland; Migrant mothers; Nationality; Racial state; Social research

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041832031     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00313220307592     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Quoted in Gordon Deegan, 'We pray the Minister will show some mercy', The Irish Times, 27 January 2003, 2.
2. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'Can the subaltern speak?', in Gary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (London: Macmillan 1988), 287.
3. David Theo Goldberg, The Racial State (Oxford: Blackwell 2002).
4. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (London: Faber and Faber 1939).
5. The photographer, Estibaliz Errasquin, has negotiated each photograph with the women.
6. Paul Anderson, 'Non-EU parents of Irish-born children facing deportation', The Irish Times, 23 January 2003.
7. Nuala Haughey, 'McDowell rules out large-scale deportations', The Irish Times, 24 January 2003, 1.
8. Nuala Haughey, 'New residency rules for non-EU immigrants', The Irish Times, 19 February 2003, 3.
9. Nira Yuval-Davis and Floya Anthias (eds), Woman - Nation - State (London: Macmillan 1989).
10. Spivak, 287.
11. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
12. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
13. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
14. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
15. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
16. See, for instance, Declan Kiberd, 'Strangers in their own country: multiculturalism in Ireland', in Edna Longley and Declan Kiberd, Multi-culturalism: The View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press 2001); Ronit Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); Robbie McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness: Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Research and Documentation 1996); Fintan O'Toole, 'Green, white and black: race and Irish identity', in Lentin (ed.), Emerging Irish Identities; Marshall Tracy, Racism and Immigration in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 2000); and Bill Rolston and Michael Shannon, Encounters: How Racism Came to Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
17. The Travellers, a nomadic indigenous people numbering some 30,000 in Ireland, north and south, are Ireland's largest ethnic minority; see, for example, John O'Connell, 'Travellers in Ireland: an examination of discrimination and racism', in Ronit Lentin and Robbie McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications 2002).
18. Cf. Ceri Peach, Vaughan Robinson and Susan Smith (eds), Ethnic Segregation in Cities (London: Croom Helm 1981).
19. See Abel Ugba, 'African communities in 21st century Dublin: enclaves of solidarity or ghettos of exclusion?', seminar paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 14 February 2003.
20. Sean Mac Connel, 'Pilot census form seeks answers on income and nationality', The Irish Times, 16 September 1999, 2.
21. See, for instance, Bryan Fanning, Steven Loyal and Ciaran Staunton, Asylum Seekers and the Right to Work in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Pauline Faughnan and Máiríde Woods, Lives on Hold: Seeking Asylum in Ireland (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2000); Irish Refugee Council, Asylum in Ireland: A Report on the Fairness and Sustainability of Asylum Determinations at First Instance (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Darren Kelly, 'From the margins to the underground: north inner city - ghetto in progress?', unpublished undergraduate dissertation, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, 2001; and Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism (Dublin: Oaktree Press 2000).
22. See, for instance, Bryan Fanning, Steven Loyal and Ciaran Staunton, Asylum Seekers and the Right to Work in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Pauline Faughnan and Máiríde Woods, Lives on Hold: Seeking Asylum in Ireland (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2000); Irish Refugee Council, Asylum in Ireland: A Report on the Fairness and Sustainability of Asylum Determinations at First Instance (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Darren Kelly, 'From the margins to the underground: north inner city - ghetto in progress?', unpublished undergraduate dissertation, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, 2001; and Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism (Dublin: Oaktree Press 2000).
23. See, for instance, Bryan Fanning, Steven Loyal and Ciaran Staunton, Asylum Seekers and the Right to Work in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Pauline Faughnan and Máiríde Woods, Lives on Hold: Seeking Asylum in Ireland (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2000); Irish Refugee Council, Asylum in Ireland: A Report on the Fairness and Sustainability of Asylum Determinations at First Instance (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Darren Kelly, 'From the margins to the underground: north inner city - ghetto in progress?', unpublished undergraduate dissertation, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, 2001; and Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism (Dublin: Oaktree Press 2000).
24. See, for instance, Bryan Fanning, Steven Loyal and Ciaran Staunton, Asylum Seekers and the Right to Work in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Pauline Faughnan and Máiríde Woods, Lives on Hold: Seeking Asylum in Ireland (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2000); Irish Refugee Council, Asylum in Ireland: A Report on the Fairness and Sustainability of Asylum Determinations at First Instance (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Darren Kelly, 'From the margins to the underground: north inner city - ghetto in progress?', unpublished undergraduate dissertation, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, 2001; and Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism (Dublin: Oaktree Press 2000).
25. See, for instance, Bryan Fanning, Steven Loyal and Ciaran Staunton, Asylum Seekers and the Right to Work in Ireland (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Pauline Faughnan and Máiríde Woods, Lives on Hold: Seeking Asylum in Ireland (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2000); Irish Refugee Council, Asylum in Ireland: A Report on the Fairness and Sustainability of Asylum Determinations at First Instance (Dublin: Irish Refugee Council 2000); Darren Kelly, 'From the margins to the underground: north inner city - ghetto in progress?', unpublished undergraduate dissertation, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, 2001; and Malcolm MacLachlan and Michael O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism (Dublin: Oaktree Press 2000).
26. Irish Refugee Council, 'Asylum seekers, refugees and direct provision', Asyland, no. 3, winter 2003, 16. In addition, between 1996 and 2001, 4,874 people were granted leave to remain as parents of an Irish child, 397 because they were married to an Irish citizen, 141 because they were married to an EEA citizen and 280 on humanitarian grounds (ibid.).
27. Tanya Ward, Immigration and Residency in Ireland (Dublin: City of Dublin Vocational Education Committee 2001), 12.
28. Although, in the case of asylum-seekers from Nigeria and Russia, women slightly outnumbered men; Tanya Ward, Asylum Seekers in Adult Education: A Study of Language and Literacy Needs (Dublin: City of Dublin Vocational Education Committee and County Dublin Vocational Education Committee 2002), 29.
29. Ugba, 'African communities in 21st century Dublin'.
30. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Oxford: Blackwell 1989).
31. See Ronit Lentin, 'Anti-racist responses to the racialisation of Irishness: disavowed multiculturalism and its discontents', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
32. According to the Irish Refugee Council, 3,500 asylum-seekers were living in direct provision in November 2002; Irish Refugee Council, 'Asylum seekers, refugees and direct provision', 17.
33. In 2003 deportations have risen to nearly two a day, according to a written response to a parliamentary question in February 2003: 521 people were deported, costing the state €1.82 million, and immigration officers refused leave to land to 4,417 people in 2002; in 2001 there were 365 deportations, at a cost of €1.17 million. Arthur Beesley, 'Deportations rise to nearly two a day', The Irish Times, 19 February 2003, 3. Answering an earlier Daíl (Parliament) question, the minister for justice said that the average cost of deportation was €3,000 but, in one instance, 'deporting six Nigerians using a charter flight cost €190,000'; deporting 849 in 2000 and 2001 cost the state €2.859 million. Marie O'Halloran, 'McDowell firm on deportation policy', The Irish Times, 12 December 2002. In July 2002, in a widely publicized operation, ironically titled 'Operation Hyphen', the Garda National Immigration Bureau as well as Gardai from Dublin 17 Division searched for asylum-seekers with a view to deporting them; they found only 5 failed asylum-seekers and detained 36 people living in Ireland without permission. Nuala Haughey, 'Operation strikes fear in irregular migrants', The Irish Times, 17 July 2002.
34. In 2003 deportations have risen to nearly two a day, according to a written response to a parliamentary question in February 2003: 521 people were deported, costing the state €1.82 million, and immigration officers refused leave to land to 4,417 people in 2002; in 2001 there were 365 deportations, at a cost of €1.17 million. Arthur Beesley, 'Deportations rise to nearly two a day', The Irish Times, 19 February 2003, 3. Answering an earlier Daíl (Parliament) question, the minister for justice said that the average cost of deportation was €3,000 but, in one instance, 'deporting six Nigerians using a charter flight cost €190,000'; deporting 849 in 2000 and 2001 cost the state €2.859 million. Marie O'Halloran, 'McDowell firm on deportation policy', The Irish Times, 12 December 2002. In July 2002, in a widely publicized operation, ironically titled 'Operation Hyphen', the Garda National Immigration Bureau as well as Gardai from Dublin 17 Division searched for asylum-seekers with a view to deporting them; they found only 5 failed asylum-seekers and detained 36 people living in Ireland without permission. Nuala Haughey, 'Operation strikes fear in irregular migrants', The Irish Times, 17 July 2002.
35. In 2003 deportations have risen to nearly two a day, according to a written response to a parliamentary question in February 2003: 521 people were deported, costing the state €1.82 million, and immigration officers refused leave to land to 4,417 people in 2002; in 2001 there were 365 deportations, at a cost of €1.17 million. Arthur Beesley, 'Deportations rise to nearly two a day', The Irish Times, 19 February 2003, 3. Answering an earlier Daíl (Parliament) question, the minister for justice said that the average cost of deportation was €3,000 but, in one instance, 'deporting six Nigerians using a charter flight cost €190,000'; deporting 849 in 2000 and 2001 cost the state €2.859 million. Marie O'Halloran, 'McDowell firm on deportation policy', The Irish Times, 12 December 2002. In July 2002, in a widely publicized operation, ironically titled 'Operation Hyphen', the Garda National Immigration Bureau as well as Gardai from Dublin 17 Division searched for asylum-seekers with a view to deporting them; they found only 5 failed asylum-seekers and detained 36 people living in Ireland without permission. Nuala Haughey, 'Operation strikes fear in irregular migrants', The Irish Times, 17 July 2002.
36. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence (Cambridge: Polity Press 1991).
37. See the interview with the justice minister in Barry O'Kelly, 'Referendum looms on immigrant babies status', Sunday Business Post, 22 December 2002, 1.
38. Chris Dooley, 'Row over deleted reference to refugees', The Irish Times, 6 February 2003, 7.
39. Haughey, 'New residency rules'
40. 'Asylum system must be respected - McDowell', The Irish Times, 5 February 2003, 7.
41. Goldberg.
42. Ibid., 43.
43. Sinéad Ní Shuinéar, 'Othering the Irish (Traveller)', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
44. Cited in Liz Curtis, Nothing But the Same Old Story: The Roots of Anti-Irish Racism (London: Information Ireland 1984), 10.
45. L. Perry Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature (Washington, DC and London: Smithsonian Institute Press 1997), 171-2.
46. Cited in L. Perry Curtis, Anglo-Saxons and Celts: A Study of Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England (Bridgeport, CT: University of Bridgeport Press 1968), 84.
47. C. L. Innes, Woman and Nation in Irish Literature and Society 1880-1935 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press 1993).
48. Ní Shuinéar, 181.
49. Daniel Corkery, The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century [1924] (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan 1997), 9, cited in NI Shuinéar, 182; see also David Lloyd, Ireland after History (Cork: Cork University Press 1999).
50. Daniel Corkery, The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century [1924] (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan 1997), 9, cited in NI Shuinéar, 182; see also David Lloyd, Ireland after History (Cork: Cork University Press 1999).
51. Patricia Levy, Culture Shock: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Ireland (London: Kuperard 1996).
52. Ní Shuinéar, 177.
53. Goldberg, 94-6; Homi Bhabha, Locations of Culture (London: Routledge 1994).
54. As was argued by Chief Justice Taney in relation to the intentional exclusion of black people from being considered citizens under the US Constitution: Goldberg, 76. See also Michael Mann, 'The flip-side of democracy: in what circumstances has popular sovereignty legitimated murder?', paper presented at the Seventh Annual Conference of the Association of the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism, London School of Economics and Political Science, 1997, on the gendered and racial configuration of 'we, the people' of the US Constitution; and Ronit Lentin, '"Irishness", the 1937 Constitution and women: a gender and ethnicity view', Irish Journal of Sociology, vol. 8, 1998, 5-24, on the racial, sedentary and gendered nature of the Constitution of Ireland.
55. As was argued by Chief Justice Taney in relation to the intentional exclusion of black people from being considered citizens under the US Constitution: Goldberg, 76. See also Michael Mann, 'The flip-side of democracy: in what circumstances has popular sovereignty legitimated murder?', paper presented at the Seventh Annual Conference of the Association of the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism, London School of Economics and Political Science, 1997, on the gendered and racial configuration of 'we, the people' of the US Constitution; and Ronit Lentin, '"Irishness", the 1937 Constitution and women: a gender and ethnicity view', Irish Journal of Sociology, vol. 8, 1998, 5-24, on the racial, sedentary and gendered nature of the Constitution of Ireland.
56. Goldberg, 80.
57. Ibid., 92-3.
58. Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence.
59. Lentin, '"Irishness"'.
60. See, for example, the racialization of Irish Travellers, conceived as 'Irish national' though not always as 'white', as argued in McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness, and Ní Shuinéar.
61. Cf. Kenan Malik, 'The perils of pluralism', Index Online, 1998, available at www.oneworld.org/index_oc/issue397/malik.htm (viewed 11 June 2003), and Phil Cohen, 'Perversions of inheritance: studies in the making of multi-racist Britain', in Phil Cohen and H. Baines (eds), Multi-Racist Britain (London: Macmillan 1988).
62. Cf. Kenan Malik, 'The perils of pluralism', Index Online, 1998, available at www.oneworld.org/index_oc/issue397/malik.htm (viewed 11 June 2003), and Phil Cohen, 'Perversions of inheritance: studies in the making of multi-racist Britain', in Phil Cohen and H. Baines (eds), Multi-Racist Britain (London: Macmillan 1988).
63. Goldberg, 141-7.
64. For example: Robbie McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism', Race and Class, vol. 33, no. 4, 1992; McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness; and Robbie McVeigh and Ronit Lentin, 'Situated racisms: a theoretical introduction', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
65. For example: Robbie McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism', Race and Class, vol. 33, no. 4, 1992; McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness; and Robbie McVeigh and Ronit Lentin, 'Situated racisms: a theoretical introduction', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
66. For example: Robbie McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism', Race and Class, vol. 33, no. 4, 1992; McVeigh, The Racialisation of Irishness; and Robbie McVeigh and Ronit Lentin, 'Situated racisms: a theoretical introduction', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
67. Goldberg, 149.
68. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1950).
69. On assimilation technologies aimed to segregate Travellers, see, for example, John O'Connell.
70. Jason King, 'Porous nation: from Ireland's "haemorrhage" to immigrant inundation: discourses of passivity and the effects of out-migration on perceptions of in-migration', in Ronit Lentin (ed.), The Expanding Nation: Towards a Multi-ethnic Ireland (Dublin: MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin 1999).
71. Giorgio Agamben, Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive (New York: Zone Books 1999), 31.
72. In a conference titled 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland', held at Trinity College Dublin on 20-1 March 2003, a representative of the Office of the Refugee Applications Commissioner speaking from the floor referred to 'IBCs', thus substituting an acronym, a classic euphemization strategy, for the existing euphemism 'Irish-born children'.
73. Barnor Hesse, 'It's your world: discrepant M/multiculturalism', in Phil Cohen (ed.), New Ethnicities, Old Racisms (London: Zed Books 1999); Barnor Hesse (ed.), Un/settled Multiculturalisms: Diasporas, Entanglements, Transruptions (London: Zed Books 2000).
74. Barnor Hesse, 'It's your world: discrepant M/multiculturalism', in Phil Cohen (ed.), New Ethnicities, Old Racisms (London: Zed Books 1999); Barnor Hesse (ed.), Un/settled Multiculturalisms: Diasporas, Entanglements, Transruptions (London: Zed Books 2000).
75. Marshall.
76. Lentin, '"Irishness"'.
77. Bunreacht na hÉireann, Constitution of Ireland [1937] (Dublin: Government Publications Office 1999), 9th amendment, 1998.
78. Bunreacht na hÉireann.
79. William Binchy, 'Thousands of families at risk after court decision', The Irish Times, 1 February 2003, 13.
80. John Maddock and Charles Mallon, '10,000 parents of Irish babies to be deported', The Evening Herald, 23 January 2003.
81. Goldberg, 94.
82. Maddock and Mallon, 8, emphasis added.
83. McVeigh and Lentin, 'Situated racisms'.
84. Ibid., 21.
85. Patrick Guerin, 'Racism and the media in Ireland: setting the anti-immigration agenda', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland.
86. The electorate seems to differ from the government in this regard: an Irish Times/MRBI opinion poll showed that 63 per cent would allow some non-national parents of Irish-born children to remain in Ireland, depending on the length of time they had been here. Only 18 per cent said all such parents should be deported. Mark Brennock, 'Hard-line view on immigrant parents rejected', The Irish Times, 17 February 2003, 5.
87. Catharine MacKinnon, Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989).
88. Yuval-Davis and Anthias (eds).
89. Goldberg, 90.
90. Cf. Breda Gray, 'Steering a course somewhere between hegemonic discourses of Irishness', in Lentin (ed.), The Expanding Nation, and Barnor Hesse, 'White governmentality: urbanism, nationalism, racism', in Sallie Westwood and John Williams (eds), Imagining Cities: Scripts, Signs, Memories (London: Routledge 1997).
91. Cf. Breda Gray, 'Steering a course somewhere between hegemonic discourses of Irishness', in Lentin (ed.), The Expanding Nation, and Barnor Hesse, 'White governmentality: urbanism, nationalism, racism', in Sallie Westwood and John Williams (eds), Imagining Cities: Scripts, Signs, Memories (London: Routledge 1997).
92. Fintan O'Toole, 'Law with a dangerous edge of racism', The Irish Times, 24 January 2003, W1.
93. Fintan O'Toole, 'The sisters of no mercy', The Observer Arts, 16 February 2003, 6.
94. Gemma O'Doherty, 'The right to citizenship', Irish Independent, 23 January 2003; Fintan O'Toole, 'Dodging the issues of immigration', The Irish Times, 28 January 2003, 16.
95. Gemma O'Doherty, 'The right to citizenship', Irish Independent, 23 January 2003; Fintan O'Toole, 'Dodging the issues of immigration', The Irish Times, 28 January 2003, 16.
96. John Burns, 'Born free', The Sunday Times, 24 February 2002, 13.
97. O'Doherty.
98. I b i d.
99. I b i d.
100. Burns.
101. Mark Hennessy, 'Ten asylum seekers get leave for British abortions', The Irish Times, 20 November 2001.
102. Carol Coulter, 'Right of minister to deport upheld by court', The Irish Times, 19 January 2002, 4.
103. Eleonore Kofman, Annie Phizaklea, A. Raghuram and Rosemary Sales, Gender and International Migration in Europe (London: Routledge 2000).
104. For example: Floya Anthias, 'Metaphors of home: gendering new migrations to Southern Europe', in Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (Oxford and New York: Berg 2000); Anthias and Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe; Kofman, Phizaklea, Raghuram and Sales; and Helma Lutz, 'The limits of European-ness: immigrant women in Fortress Europe', Feminist Review, vol. 57, 1997, 93-111.
105. For example: Floya Anthias, 'Metaphors of home: gendering new migrations to Southern Europe', in Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (Oxford and New York: Berg 2000); Anthias and Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe; Kofman, Phizaklea, Raghuram and Sales; and Helma Lutz, 'The limits of European-ness: immigrant women in Fortress Europe', Feminist Review, vol. 57, 1997, 93-111.
106. For example: Floya Anthias, 'Metaphors of home: gendering new migrations to Southern Europe', in Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (Oxford and New York: Berg 2000); Anthias and Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe; Kofman, Phizaklea, Raghuram and Sales; and Helma Lutz, 'The limits of European-ness: immigrant women in Fortress Europe', Feminist Review, vol. 57, 1997, 93-111.
107. For example: Floya Anthias, 'Metaphors of home: gendering new migrations to Southern Europe', in Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (Oxford and New York: Berg 2000); Anthias and Lazaridis (eds), Gender and Migration in Southern Europe; Kofman, Phizaklea, Raghuram and Sales; and Helma Lutz, 'The limits of European-ness: immigrant women in Fortress Europe', Feminist Review, vol. 57, 1997, 93-111.
108. Eleonore Kofman, 'Gender, migrants and rights in the European Union', in Tori Fenster (ed.), Gender, Planning and Human Rights (London: Routledge 1999).
109. Siobhán Mullally argues, however, that gender has been successfully inserted into Irish asylum and refugee legislation: S. Mullally, 'Recognising gender-based persecution: engendering asylum law in Ireland', paper presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003. John Carry of the Office of the Refugee Applications Commissioner presented a paper at the 'Refugee women and the law' conference, University College Cork, 8 March 2003, arguing that the RAC had put in place gender mainstreaming practices to assist women to claim asylum independently.
110. Layla Gülçür and Pinar Ilkkaracan, 'The "Natasha" experience: migrant sex workers from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in Turkey', Women's Studies International Forum, vol. 25, no. 4, 2002, 411-22.
111. Yuval-Davis and Anthias (eds)
112. Lentin, '"Irishness"'; Nira Yuval-Davis and Pnina Werbner (eds), Women, Citizenship and Difference (London: Zed Books 1999); and Gill Valentine, Social Geographies: Space and Society (Harlow: Pearson Education 2000).
113. Lentin, '"Irishness"'; Nira Yuval-Davis and Pnina Werbner (eds), Women, Citizenship and Difference (London: Zed Books 1999); and Gill Valentine, Social Geographies: Space and Society (Harlow: Pearson Education 2000).
114. Lentin, '"Irishness"'; Nira Yuval-Davis and Pnina Werbner (eds), Women, Citizenship and Difference (London: Zed Books 1999); and Gill Valentine, Social Geographies: Space and Society (Harlow: Pearson Education 2000).
115. Irish Council for Civil Liberties Women's Council, Women and the Refugee Experience: Towards a Statement of Best Practice (Dublin: ICCL Women's Committee in association with the National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism and The Irish Times 2001); United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee Women - Victims or Survivors? (Dublin: UNHCR 1999).
116. Irish Council for Civil Liberties Women's Council, Women and the Refugee Experience: Towards a Statement of Best Practice (Dublin: ICCL Women's Committee in association with the National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism and The Irish Times 2001); United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee Women - Victims or Survivors? (Dublin: UNHCR 1999).
117. See, for example, Patricia Kennedy and Jo Murphy-Lawless, The Maternity Care Needs of Refugee and Asylum-Seeker Women, a research study conducted for the Women's Health Unit, Northern Area Health Board, Ireland, 2001. But see also, for example, Siobhán Malone, 'The Migration Experience of Filipina Nurses', MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies unpublished dissertation, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2002, on Filipina nurses in Dublin making informed choices about labour migration.
118. See, for example, Patricia Kennedy and Jo Murphy-Lawless, The Maternity Care Needs of Refugee and Asylum-Seeker Women, a research study conducted for the Women's Health Unit, Northern Area Health Board, Ireland, 2001. But see also, for example, Siobhán Malone, 'The Migration Experience of Filipina Nurses', MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies unpublished dissertation, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2002, on Filipina nurses in Dublin making informed choices about labour migration.
119. Valentine; see also, for example, Peach, Robinson and Smith (eds).
120. Ruth Frankenberg (ed.), The Social Construction of Whiteness: White Women, Race Matters (London: Routledge 1993).
121. Hesse, 'White governmentality', 88.
122. The use of the term 'black' in this article denotes the lack of clarity regarding racial appellations in the Irish context, probably due to the newness not of the existence of racism, but of the discourses available to theorize it. While Robbie McVeigh argues that both Irish and Travellers have been called 'black' and 'dirty' by the English (McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism'), Shalini Sihna prefers the term 'of colour' (S. Sinha, 'Generating awareness for the experiences of women of colour in Ireland', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland). Echoing the 're-naming to un-name' categorization of 'mixed race' or métis(se) (Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, Scattered Belongings: Cultural Paradoxes of 'Race', Nation and Gender (London: Routledge 1991)), Angeline Morrison inserts a mixed-race ambivalent categorization into the as yet under-theorized racialization of Irishness (A. Morrison, Irish and brown: mixed 'race' Irish women and the question of belonging', paper presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003).
123. The use of the term 'black' in this article denotes the lack of clarity regarding racial appellations in the Irish context, probably due to the newness not of the existence of racism, but of the discourses available to theorize it. While Robbie McVeigh argues that both Irish and Travellers have been called 'black' and 'dirty' by the English (McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism'), Shalini Sihna prefers the term 'of colour' (S. Sinha, 'Generating awareness for the experiences of women of colour in Ireland', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland). Echoing the 're-naming to un-name' categorization of 'mixed race' or métis(se) (Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, Scattered Belongings: Cultural Paradoxes of 'Race', Nation and Gender (London: Routledge 1991)), Angeline Morrison inserts a mixed-race ambivalent categorization into the as yet under-theorized racialization of Irishness (A. Morrison, Irish and brown: mixed 'race' Irish women and the question of belonging', paper presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003).
124. The use of the term 'black' in this article denotes the lack of clarity regarding racial appellations in the Irish context, probably due to the newness not of the existence of racism, but of the discourses available to theorize it. While Robbie McVeigh argues that both Irish and Travellers have been called 'black' and 'dirty' by the English (McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism'), Shalini Sihna prefers the term 'of colour' (S. Sinha, 'Generating awareness for the experiences of women of colour in Ireland', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland). Echoing the 're-naming to un-name' categorization of 'mixed race' or métis(se) (Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, Scattered Belongings: Cultural Paradoxes of 'Race', Nation and Gender (London: Routledge 1991)), Angeline Morrison inserts a mixed-race ambivalent categorization into the as yet under-theorized racialization of Irishness (A. Morrison, Irish and brown: mixed 'race' Irish women and the question of belonging', paper presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003).
125. The use of the term 'black' in this article denotes the lack of clarity regarding racial appellations in the Irish context, probably due to the newness not of the existence of racism, but of the discourses available to theorize it. While Robbie McVeigh argues that both Irish and Travellers have been called 'black' and 'dirty' by the English (McVeigh, 'The specificity of Irish racism'), Shalini Sihna prefers the term 'of colour' (S. Sinha, 'Generating awareness for the experiences of women of colour in Ireland', in Lentin and McVeigh (eds), Racism and Antiracism in Ireland). Echoing the 're-naming to un-name' categorization of 'mixed race' or métis(se) (Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, Scattered Belongings: Cultural Paradoxes of 'Race', Nation and Gender (London: Routledge 1991)), Angeline Morrison inserts a mixed-race ambivalent categorization into the as yet under-theorized racialization of Irishness (A. Morrison, Irish and brown: mixed 'race' Irish women and the question of belonging', paper presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003).
126. For 'minority discourse', see Abdul R. JanMohammed and David Lloyd (eds), The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1990); for 'metropolarities', see Edward Soja, 'Six discourses on the postmetropolis', in Westwood and Williams (eds); see generally Ronit Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian post-metropolis: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city', City, vol. 6, no. 2, 2002, 239-49.
127. For 'minority discourse', see Abdul R. JanMohammed and David Lloyd (eds), The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1990); for 'metropolarities', see Edward Soja, 'Six discourses on the postmetropolis', in Westwood and Williams (eds); see generally Ronit Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian post-metropolis: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city', City, vol. 6, no. 2, 2002, 239-49.
128. For 'minority discourse', see Abdul R. JanMohammed and David Lloyd (eds), The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1990); for 'metropolarities', see Edward Soja, 'Six discourses on the postmetropolis', in Westwood and Williams (eds); see generally Ronit Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian post-metropolis: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city', City, vol. 6, no. 2, 2002, 239-49.
129. Joseph Campbell and Henry M. Robinson, A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (London: Faber and Faber 1944), 19.
130. Kennedy and Murphy-Lawless.
131. Campbell and Robinson.
132. Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (London: Jonathan Cape 1974); Zygmunt Bauman, Life in Fragments: Essays in Postmodern Morality (Oxford: Blackwell 1998).
133. Erich Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (London: Jonathan Cape 1974); Zygmunt Bauman, Life in Fragments: Essays in Postmodern Morality (Oxford: Blackwell 1998).
134. Bauman, Life in Fragments.
135. See, in the Irish context, Elisa Joy White, 'Making space in a time warp: African diaspora culture and identity in a retro-global Ireland', paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2001; Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian postmetropolis'; and papers presented at the 'Re-mapping Dublin: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city' seminar, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 16 February 2002, by Elisa Joy White ('On Dublin's African diaspora spaces'), Abel Ugba ('Meeting the needs of a community: the role of socio-cultural institutions in the African community in Dublin'), and Carla De Tona ('Italianness in Dublin: the Other's otherness').
136. See, in the Irish context, Elisa Joy White, 'Making space in a time warp: African diaspora culture and identity in a retro-global Ireland', paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2001; Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian postmetropolis'; and papers presented at the 'Re-mapping Dublin: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city' seminar, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 16 February 2002, by Elisa Joy White ('On Dublin's African diaspora spaces'), Abel Ugba ('Meeting the needs of a community: the role of socio-cultural institutions in the African community in Dublin'), and Carla De Tona ('Italianness in Dublin: the Other's otherness').
137. See, in the Irish context, Elisa Joy White, 'Making space in a time warp: African diaspora culture and identity in a retro-global Ireland', paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2001; Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian postmetropolis'; and papers presented at the 'Re-mapping Dublin: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city' seminar, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 16 February 2002, by Elisa Joy White ('On Dublin's African diaspora spaces'), Abel Ugba ('Meeting the needs of a community: the role of socio-cultural institutions in the African community in Dublin'), and Carla De Tona ('Italianness in Dublin: the Other's otherness').
138. See, in the Irish context, Elisa Joy White, 'Making space in a time warp: African diaspora culture and identity in a retro-global Ireland', paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2001; Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian postmetropolis'; and papers presented at the 'Re-mapping Dublin: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city' seminar, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 16 February 2002, by Elisa Joy White ('On Dublin's African diaspora spaces'), Abel Ugba ('Meeting the needs of a community: the role of socio-cultural institutions in the African community in Dublin'), and Carla De Tona ('Italianness in Dublin: the Other's otherness').
139. See, in the Irish context, Elisa Joy White, 'Making space in a time warp: African diaspora culture and identity in a retro-global Ireland', paper presented to the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 2001; Lentin, 'At the heart of the Hibernian postmetropolis'; and papers presented at the 'Re-mapping Dublin: spatial narratives of ethnic minorities and diasporic communities in a changing city' seminar, Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, 16 February 2002, by Elisa Joy White ('On Dublin's African diaspora spaces'), Abel Ugba ('Meeting the needs of a community: the role of socio-cultural institutions in the African community in Dublin'), and Carla De Tona ('Italianness in Dublin: the Other's otherness').
140. See, e.g., papers presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003 by Karen Smyth and Jean Whyte ('Parenting alone in Ireland: the experience of refugee and asylum seeking women') and Joan O'Connor ('The labour market needs and experiences of minority ethnic groups, particularly refugees, in Ireland: a specific focus on refugee women').
141. See, e.g., papers presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003 by Karen Smyth and Jean Whyte ('Parenting alone in Ireland: the experience of refugee and asylum seeking women') and Joan O'Connor ('The labour market needs and experiences of minority ethnic groups, particularly refugees, in Ireland: a specific focus on refugee women').
142. See, e.g., papers presented at the 'Women's movement: migrant women transforming Ireland' conference, Trinity College Dublin, 20-1 March 2003 by Karen Smyth and Jean Whyte ('Parenting alone in Ireland: the experience of refugee and asylum seeking women') and Joan O'Connor ('The labour market needs and experiences of minority ethnic groups, particularly refugees, in Ireland: a specific focus on refugee women').
143. For example, Caroline Ramazanoglu with Janet Holland, Feminist Methodology: Challenges and Choices (London: Sage 2002), 110.
144. For example, Anne Byrne and Ronit Lentin (eds), (Re)searching Women: Feminist Research Methodologies in the Social Sciences in Ireland (Dublin: Institute for Public Administration 2000).
145. Alice Feldman, Carmen Frese and Tarig Yousif, Research, Development and Critical Interculturalism: A Study on the Participation of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Research and Development-based Initiatives (Dublin: Social Science Research Centre, University College Dublin 2003), 20.
146. See, for example, contributors to Byrne and Lentin (eds), (Re)searching Women.
147. Katrina Goldstone, 'Re-writing you: writing and researching ethnic minorities', in MacLachlan and O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism, 313; for a critique of social research studies of ethnic minority women, see also Rosaleen McDonagh, 'Talking back', in Byrne and Lentin (eds), (Re)searching Women.
148. Katrina Goldstone, 'Re-writing you: writing and researching ethnic minorities', in MacLachlan and O'Connell (eds), Cultivating Pluralism, 313; for a critique of social research studies of ethnic minority women, see also Rosaleen McDonagh, 'Talking back', in Byrne and Lentin (eds), (Re)searching Women.
149. Goldberg, 146.
150. Quoted in Deegan.
151. Lentin, 'Anti-racist responses'.
152. AkiDwA (African Women's Network) and Islamic Cultural Centre of Ireland Women's Cultural Group, 'Submission to the National Plan against Racism', August 2002 (unpublished).
153. Hilary Tovey, 'Risk, morality and the sociology of animals - reflections on the foot and mouth outbreak in Ireland', Irish Journal of Sociology, vol. 11, no. 1, 2002, 23-42 (28).