Controlling German science, II: Bizonal occupation and the struggle over West German science policy, 1946-1949

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 197-239

  Cassidy, David ^a  

^a HOFSTRA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0041783389     PISSN: 08909997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27757762     Document Type: Article

References (196)

1. D. Cassidy, "Controlling German science, I: U.S. and Allied forces in Germany, 1945-1947," HSPS, 24:1 (1994), 197-235.
2. An informative overview is provided by O. Keck, "West German science policy since the early 1960s: Trends and objectives," Research Policy, 5 (1976), 116-157.
3. D. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); and the important studies by M. Eckert: "Primacy doomed to failure: Heisenberg's role as scientific advisor for nuclear policy in the FRG," HSPS, 21 (1990), 29-58; "Neutrons and politics: Maier-Leibniz and the emergence of pile neutron research in the FRG," HSPS, 19 (1988), 81-113; and "Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland," Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 37 (1989), 115-143.
4. D. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); and the important studies by M. Eckert: "Primacy doomed to failure: Heisenberg's role as scientific advisor for nuclear policy in the FRG," HSPS, 21 (1990), 29-58; "Neutrons and politics: Maier-Leibniz and the emergence of pile neutron research in the FRG," HSPS, 19 (1988), 81-113; and "Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland," Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 37 (1989), 115-143.
5. D. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); and the important studies by M. Eckert: "Primacy doomed to failure: Heisenberg's role as scientific advisor for nuclear policy in the FRG," HSPS, 21 (1990), 29-58; "Neutrons and politics: Maier-Leibniz and the emergence of pile neutron research in the FRG," HSPS, 19 (1988), 81-113; and "Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland," Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 37 (1989), 115-143.
6. D. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The life and science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1992); and the important studies by M. Eckert: "Primacy doomed to failure: Heisenberg's role as scientific advisor for nuclear policy in the FRG," HSPS, 21 (1990), 29-58; "Neutrons and politics: Maier-Leibniz and the emergence of pile neutron research in the FRG," HSPS, 19 (1988), 81-113; and "Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland," Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 37 (1989), 115-143.
7. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
8. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
9. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
10. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
11. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
12. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
13. M. Eckert, ibid.; M. Cioc, Pax Atomica: The nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (NewYork, 1988); D. Nelkin and M. Pollak, The atom besieged: Extraparliamentary dissent in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); J. Radkau, Aufstieg und Krise der deutschen Atomwirtschaft, 1945-1975: Verdrängte Alternativen in der Kerntechnik und der Ursprung der nuklearen Kontroverse (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1983); H.K. Rupp, Ausserparlamentarische Opposition in der Ära Adenauer: Der Kampf gegen die Atombewaffnung in den fünfziger Jahren (Koln, 1980); C.M. Kelleher, Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York, 1975); P. Fischer, Atomenergie und Staatliches Interesse (Baden-Baden, 1994).
14. R.G. Stokes, Divide and prosper: The heirs of I.G. Farben under Allied authority, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1988); M. Eckert and M. Osietzki, Wissenschaft für Macht und Markt: Kernforschung und Mikroelektronik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich, 1989); M. Eckert and H. Schubert, Kristalle, Elektronen, Transistoren: Von der Gelehrtenstube zur Industrieforschung (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1986).
15. R.G. Stokes, Divide and prosper: The heirs of I.G. Farben under Allied authority, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1988); M. Eckert and M. Osietzki, Wissenschaft für Macht und Markt: Kernforschung und Mikroelektronik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich, 1989); M. Eckert and H. Schubert, Kristalle, Elektronen, Transistoren: Von der Gelehrtenstube zur Industrieforschung (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1986).
16. R.G. Stokes, Divide and prosper: The heirs of I.G. Farben under Allied authority, 1945-1951 (Berkeley, 1988); M. Eckert and M. Osietzki, Wissenschaft für Macht und Markt: Kernforschung und Mikroelektronik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich, 1989); M. Eckert and H. Schubert, Kristalle, Elektronen, Transistoren: Von der Gelehrtenstube zur Industrieforschung (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1986).
17. C. Carson, "Particle physics and cultural politics: Werner Heisenberg and the shaping of a role for the physicist in postwar West Germany," doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1995. am grateful to Dr. Carson for providing a copy of her thesis. Histories of postwar particle physics include: S.S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994); Schweber, "Some reflections on the history of particle physics in the 1950s," in L.M. Brown et al., eds. Pions and quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s, (Cambridge, 1989), 668-693; and A. Pais, Inward bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford, 1991). See also A. Pickering, Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics (Chicago, 1984).
18. C. Carson, "Particle physics and cultural politics: Werner Heisenberg and the shaping of a role for the physicist in postwar West Germany," doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1995. am grateful to Dr. Carson for providing a copy of her thesis. Histories of postwar particle physics include: S.S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994); Schweber, "Some reflections on the history of particle physics in the 1950s," in L.M. Brown et al., eds. Pions and quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s, (Cambridge, 1989), 668-693; and A. Pais, Inward bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford, 1991). See also A. Pickering, Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics (Chicago, 1984).
19. C. Carson, "Particle physics and cultural politics: Werner Heisenberg and the shaping of a role for the physicist in postwar West Germany," doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1995. am grateful to Dr. Carson for providing a copy of her thesis. Histories of postwar particle physics include: S.S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994); Schweber, "Some reflections on the history of particle physics in the 1950s," in L.M. Brown et al., eds. Pions and quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s, (Cambridge, 1989), 668-693; and A. Pais, Inward bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford, 1991). See also A. Pickering, Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics (Chicago, 1984).
20. C. Carson, "Particle physics and cultural politics: Werner Heisenberg and the shaping of a role for the physicist in postwar West Germany," doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1995. am grateful to Dr. Carson for providing a copy of her thesis. Histories of postwar particle physics include: S.S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994); Schweber, "Some reflections on the history of particle physics in the 1950s," in L.M. Brown et al., eds. Pions and quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s, (Cambridge, 1989), 668-693; and A. Pais, Inward bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford, 1991). See also A. Pickering, Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics (Chicago, 1984).
21. C. Carson, "Particle physics and cultural politics: Werner Heisenberg and the shaping of a role for the physicist in postwar West Germany," doctoral thesis, Harvard University, 1995. am grateful to Dr. Carson for providing a copy of her thesis. Histories of postwar particle physics include: S.S. Schweber, QED and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton, 1994); Schweber, "Some reflections on the history of particle physics in the 1950s," in L.M. Brown et al., eds. Pions and quarks: Particle physics in the 1950s, (Cambridge, 1989), 668-693; and A. Pais, Inward bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford, 1991). See also A. Pickering, Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics (Chicago, 1984).
22. T. Stamm, Zwischen Staat und Selbstverwaltung: Die deutsche Forschung im Wiederaufbau 1945-1965 (Koln, 1981); M. Osietzki, Wissenschaftsorganisation und Restauration: Der Aufbau ausseruniversitärer Forschungseinrichtungen und die Gründung des westdeutschen Staates 1945-1952 (Koln, 1984). See also Stamm, "New opportunities - old traditions: The struggle for autonomy of postwar German science," in M. de Maria, et al., eds., The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945-1960 (Singapore, 1989), 228-246. Stamm also explores nuclear policy in the early Federal Republic and Osietzki widens her perspective to all four occupation zones in the period preceding the founding of the Federal Republic.
23. T. Stamm, Zwischen Staat und Selbstverwaltung: Die deutsche Forschung im Wiederaufbau 1945-1965 (Koln, 1981); M. Osietzki, Wissenschaftsorganisation und Restauration: Der Aufbau ausseruniversitärer Forschungseinrichtungen und die Gründung des westdeutschen Staates 1945-1952 (Koln, 1984). See also Stamm, "New opportunities - old traditions: The struggle for autonomy of postwar German science," in M. de Maria, et al., eds., The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945-1960 (Singapore, 1989), 228-246. Stamm also explores nuclear policy in the early Federal Republic and Osietzki widens her perspective to all four occupation zones in the period preceding the founding of the Federal Republic.
24. T. Stamm, Zwischen Staat und Selbstverwaltung: Die deutsche Forschung im Wiederaufbau 1945-1965 (Koln, 1981); M. Osietzki, Wissenschaftsorganisation und Restauration: Der Aufbau ausseruniversitärer Forschungseinrichtungen und die Gründung des westdeutschen Staates 1945-1952 (Koln, 1984). See also Stamm, "New opportunities - old traditions: The struggle for autonomy of postwar German science," in M. de Maria, et al., eds., The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945-1960 (Singapore, 1989), 228-246. Stamm also explores nuclear policy in the early Federal Republic and Osietzki widens her perspective to all four occupation zones in the period preceding the founding of the Federal Republic.
25. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
26. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
27. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
28. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
29. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
30. Cassidy (ref. 1); J. Gimbel, The American occupation of Germany: Politics and the military 1945-1949 (Stanford, 1968); E.N. Peterson, The American occupation of Germany: Retreat to victory (Detroit, 1978); C.F. Latour and T. Vogelsang, Okkupation und Wiederaufbau: Die Tätigkeit der Militärregierung in der amerikanischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1944-1947 (Stuttgart, 1973); W. Benz, Die Gründung der Bundesrepublik: von der Bizone zum Souveränen Staat (Munich, 1984). See also H. Zink, The United States in Germany 1944-1955 (Princeton, 1957).
31. "Directive to Commander in Chief of United States Forces of Occupation regarding military government of Germany," Apr 1945, in Story, 22-33.
32. "Protocol of the proceedings of the Berlin [Potsdam] conference, 17 July-2 August 1945," in Story, 47-57, on 48.
33. Ibid., 49-50.
34. Eisenhower, "Proclamation No. 2," 19 Sep 1945, in OMGUS, Military Government Gazette, U.S. area of control, Issue A (1945), 2-3.
35. L.W. Fuller, "The problem of German political revival," U.S. Department of State, Bulletin, 14 (1946), 547-552, 573-576, on 551, dated 7 Apr 1946. OMGUS surveys at the end of February 1946 indicated, however, that the Germans themselves favored a more gradual transfer of power, with the U. S. retaining final control and decision-making authority. A.J. and R.L. Merritt, eds., Public opinion in occupied Germany: The OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949 (Urbana, 1970), 71, 75-76. This is further discussed by V. Botzenhart-Viehe, "The German reaction to the American occupation, 1944-1947" (doctoral thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1980).
36. L.W. Fuller, "The problem of German political revival," U.S. Department of State, Bulletin, 14 (1946), 547-552, 573-576, on 551, dated 7 Apr 1946. OMGUS surveys at the end of February 1946 indicated, however, that the Germans themselves favored a more gradual transfer of power, with the U. S. retaining final control and decision-making authority. A.J. and R.L. Merritt, eds., Public opinion in occupied Germany: The OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949 (Urbana, 1970), 71, 75-76. This is further discussed by V. Botzenhart-Viehe, "The German reaction to the American occupation, 1944-1947" (doctoral thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1980).
37. L.W. Fuller, "The problem of German political revival," U.S. Department of State, Bulletin, 14 (1946), 547-552, 573-576, on 551, dated 7 Apr 1946. OMGUS surveys at the end of February 1946 indicated, however, that the Germans themselves favored a more gradual transfer of power, with the U. S. retaining final control and decision-making authority. A.J. and R.L. Merritt, eds., Public opinion in occupied Germany: The OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949 (Urbana, 1970), 71, 75-76. This is further discussed by V. Botzenhart-Viehe, "The German reaction to the American occupation, 1944-1947" (doctoral thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1980).
38. Eisenhower, order issued on 5 Oct 45, in J.K. Pollock and J.H. Meisel, eds., Germany under occupation (Ann Arbor, 1947), 101-102.
39. Ibid., 102.
40. Quoted in L. Härtel, Der Länderrat des amerikanischen Besarzungsgebietes (Stuttgart, 1951), 208.
41. This according to one of its founders, Karl Loewenstein, "Political reconstruction in Germany, zonal and interzonal," in J.K. Pollock, ed., Change and crisis in European government (New York, 1947), 35-43, on 36.
42. Härtel (ref. 16); M.E. Foelz-Schroeter, Föderalistische Politik und nationale Repräsentation 1945-1947: Landesregierungen, zonale Bürokratien und politische Parteien im Widerstreit (Stuttgart, 1974); and R. W. Miller, "The South German Länderrat: The origins of postwar German federalism" (doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, 1960).
43. Härtel (ref. 16); M.E. Foelz-Schroeter, Föderalistische Politik und nationale Repräsentation 1945-1947: Landesregierungen, zonale Bürokratien und politische Parteien im Widerstreit (Stuttgart, 1974); and R. W. Miller, "The South German Länderrat: The origins of postwar German federalism" (doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, 1960).
44. Härtel (ref. 16); M.E. Foelz-Schroeter, Föderalistische Politik und nationale Repräsentation 1945-1947: Landesregierungen, zonale Bürokratien und politische Parteien im Widerstreit (Stuttgart, 1974); and R. W. Miller, "The South German Länderrat: The origins of postwar German federalism" (doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, 1960).
45. Härtel (ref. 16); Eisenhower, orders issued 2 Nov and 20 Dec 1945, in Pollock and Meisel (ref. 14).
46. Härtel (ref. 16); Eisenhower, orders issued 2 Nov and 20 Dec 1945, in Pollock and Meisel (ref. 14).
47. Cassidy (ref. 1).
48. "Directorate responsibility for the control of scientific research and technical development," CORC/P(46)182, 28 May 1946, in Control Council, Enactments and approved papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee (9 vols., Berlin, 1944-1948), 3, 150-151.
49. OMGUS, Economics Division Memorandum 15, to Länder offices of military government, economics divisions, 1 Mar 1946 (NA, box 73, folder "Econ. Div. Memos").
50. "Control Council Law No. 25 - Control of scientific research," CONL/P(46)29 (final), dated 29 April 1946, to come into force May 7, 1946 (HI, Box 30, Control Council, Official Gazette), reprinted without appendices in Documents, 131-134.
51. Ludwig Preller to the LR General Secretary, 6 May 1946 (BA Z1/1009, 24); minutes of the internal LR meetings (BA Z1/18, vol. 1).
52. Personnel files (BA, PA Preller), and "Preller, Ludwig," Wer ist Wer (Berlin, 1956).
53. Minutes of the internal LR meeting of 6 Aug 1946 (BA Z1/18, vol.1, 214-221); discussed in Härtel (ref. 16), 36-37.
54. Byrnes and Bevin, "Memorandum on agreement," 2 Dec 1946, reprinted in Pollock and Meisel (ref. 14), 240-243; Peterson (ref. 8); and E.H. Litchfield (an architect of the fusion), "Emergence of German governments," in Litchfield, ed., Governing postwar Germany, 1 (Ithaca, NY, 1953), 19-54.
55. Byrnes and Bevin, "Memorandum on agreement," 2 Dec 1946, reprinted in Pollock and Meisel (ref. 14), 240-243; Peterson (ref. 8); and E.H. Litchfield (an architect of the fusion), "Emergence of German governments," in Litchfield, ed., Governing postwar Germany, 1 (Ithaca, NY, 1953), 19-54.
56. Byrnes and Bevin, "Memorandum on agreement," 2 Dec 1946, reprinted in Pollock and Meisel (ref. 14), 240-243; Peterson (ref. 8); and E.H. Litchfield (an architect of the fusion), "Emergence of German governments," in Litchfield, ed., Governing postwar Germany, 1 (Ithaca, NY, 1953), 19-54.
57. Summary minutes in English of meeting of "Special Committee Research Control," 24 Jul 1946 (NA, box 86, folder "research control").
58. It is possible that Scatchard's reply was intended for the record. Bavaria's later proposal may have been a preparation for its later attempt to grab the institutes it desired.
59. Pollock to Clay, 23 Jul 1946 (NA, box 104, folder "Education").
60. Minutes of LR meeting of representatives of culture and finance ministries, Stuttgart, 30 Jul 1946 (NA, box 103, folder "Education (reports)").
61. F. Glum, Zwischen Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft and Politik: Erlebtes and Erdachtes in vier Reichen (Bonn, 1964), 595; Härtel (ref. 16), 41.
62. F. Glum, Zwischen Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft and Politik: Erlebtes and Erdachtes in vier Reichen (Bonn, 1964), 595; Härtel (ref. 16), 41.
63. Minutes of sixth meeting of LR, 6 Aug 1946 (BA Z1/18, vol. 1, 214-221); and Geiler to LR, 22 Jul 1946 (ibid., 228).
64. Minutes of sixth meeting of LR, 6 Aug 1946 (BA Z1/18, vol. 1, 214-221); and Geiler to LR, 22 Jul 1946 (ibid., 228).
65. Seelos to secretariat of LR, enclosing memo from Friedrich Glum, 18 Dec 1946 (BA Z1/581, 125).
66. Minutes of meeting of Cultural Policy Committee, 27-28 Sep 1946 (BA Z1/1009, 197-209); E. Rossmann, Ein Leben für Sozialismus und Demokratie (Stuttgart, 1947).
67. Minutes of meeting of Cultural Policy Committee, 27-28 Sep 1946 (BA Z1/1009, 197-209); E. Rossmann, Ein Leben für Sozialismus und Demokratie (Stuttgart, 1947).
68. Heinz Guradze, report of Cultural Policy Committee meeting, 27-28 Sep 1946 (NA, box 103).
69. Appendix 4 to minutes of internal LR meeting of 10 Sep 1946 (BA Z1/18, 177).
70. Ibid.
71. English summary of minutes of meeting of Research Control Committee, 28 Oct 1946 (NA, box 86, folder "research control").
72. On 3 Dec 1946 the LR granted the committee official recognition under this name (minutes of LR meeting, BA Z1/18); but, under Länder pressure, the Direktorium ordered the name changed back to the original form; excerpt from minutes of Direktorium meeting of 13 Feb 1947 (BA Z1/423, 63-65).
73. Möller's committee had also recently upgraded its name, to the "Wirtschaftsrat" (Economic Council).
74. Möller to Eickemeyer, 20 Feb 1947 (BA Z1/581, 72-74).
75. Preller to Rossmann, Gen. Sec., 22 Jan 1947 (BA Z1/423, 54-56).
76. Eickemeyer to Rossmann, 9 Jan 1947 (BA Z1/581); and Eickemeyer to Rossmann over Möller, 14 Feb 1947 (BA Z1/423).
77. Ibid.
78. Ref. 22.
79. "Bericht über die 1. Sitzung des Beirates der FÜS beim Wirtschaftsministerium Württemberg-Baden vom 21. November 1946" dated 25 Nov 1946 (BA Z1/581, 272-277).
80. Ibid. On 4 Mar 1947 Rossmann in Stuttgart informed the Bavarian state government that the Research Control Committee would continue to inform itself on questions regarding the organization of science, because the military government made this a component of control activity (BA Z1/423).
81. English summary of meeting minutes, 25 Nov 1947 (NA, box 86).
82. "Bericht über die 5. Sitzung des Verwaltungsrats für Wirtschaft (VRW) in Frankfurt/M am 13./14.11.46" (BA Z1/423)
83. Ref. 49.
84. Allied Control Authority, Directorate of Internal Affairs and Communications, "Draft Law on the Dissolution of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Promotion of Scientific Research," 18 Oct 1946, and related documents (HI, Box 14). An insightful history of the KWG during the Third Reich is provided by K. Macrakis, Surviving the swastika: Scientific research in Nazi Germany (New York, 1993).
85. Minutes of Cultural Policy Committee meeting, 6-7 Dec 1946 (BA Z1/1009). The VRW stated that the KWIs were within the exclusive domain of the culture ministers and that economic support from Frankfurt was only temporary and on authority of the culture ministers; ̈Berichẗ (ref. 50).
86. James F. Byrnes, "Restatement of U.S. policy on Germany," in Story, 3-8, on 5.
87. Ibid., 7-8.
88. Lt. Col. G.H. Garde, directive of 30 Sep 1946, reprinted in Story, 155-157.
89. Clay and Robertson, Appendix A to British Military Government Ordinance No. 88, 29 May 1947, in Documents, 227-231.
90. Litchfield (ref. 27), 30.
91. Peterson (ref. 8), 184-188.
92. British Military Government Ordinance No. 126, 9 Feb 1948, in Documents, 268-275.
93. Clay, "Proclamation No. 5," 2 Jun 1947, in OMGUS, Military Gazette Germany: US Area of Control, issue E (1 Aug 1947), 1-2. Eickemeyer reported Nordstrom's view that research control would remain distinctive to each zone, in Research Control Committee, minutes, 25 Mar 1947 (NA, Box 86, folder "research control").
94. "Directive to Commander in Chief of United States Forces of Occupation regarding the Military Government of Germany [JCS 1779]," 11 Jul 1947, in Story, 33-41, on 38, 40.
95. "Write texts here for Reich schools," New York Times (10 Nov 1944), 21.
96. Cultural Policy Committee, minutes, 5-7 Dec 1946 (NA, box 103 and BA Z1/1009); Sonderausschuss für Berliner wissenschaftliche Institute, minutes, 4 Nov 1946 (NA, box 103, folder "Education II," subfolder "scientific institutes").
97. Sonderausschuss, minutes (ref. 64).
98. A. Beyerchen, Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the physics community in the Third Reich (New Haven, 1977), 41-42, 60-61.
99. Glum (ref. 32), 583.
100. Ibid., 595-596, 612-614.
101. Minutes of Direcktorium meeting of 2 Dec 1946, attended by Glum and Kraus (BA Z1/20); minutes of internal Lánderrat meeting of 3 Dec 1946 (BA Z1/18). See Osietzski (ref. 7), 148-160.
102. Preller to Rossmann, 22 Jan 1947 (BA Z1/423, 54-56).
103. Research Control Committee, minutes, 16 Jan 1947 (NA, box 86, folder "research control"). Glum later defended his actions; ref. 32, 613.
104. Minutes (ref. 71); Preller to Möller, 5 Mar 1947; Möller to Eickemeyer, 4 Mar 1947 (BA Z1/423).
105. Minutes (ref. 71) and Eickemeyer to Möller, 10 Mar 1947 (BA Z1/423).
106. Preller, correspondence in BA Z1/423.
107. Research Control Committee, minutes, 24 Feb 1947 (NA, box 86). The secretariat approved.
108. Internal Länderrat meeting, minutes, 15 Apr 1947 (BA Z1 /19).
109. Knoblauch to Eickemeyer, 4 Mar 1947 (BA Z1/423).
110. Research Control Committee, minutes, including Knoblauch memo, 25 Mar 1947 (NA, box 86).
111. Research Control Committee, minutes, 7 Jul 1947, ibid.
112. Research Control Committee, minutes, 25 Mar 47, ibid; and Regener to Research Control Committee, 22 Mar 1947 (BA Z1/581, 51-53).
113. Biographical references, archives and library, Universität Stuttgart.
114. Reported by F. Frowein, remarks at meeting, "Langfristiger Forschungsplan," 25 Jun 1947 (BA Z1/603, 162-165).
115. Bipartite Economic Panel, "Encouragement of industrial research in the combined zones," 7 and 13 Mar 1947, and minutes, 18 Mar 1947 (HI, boxes 42-43); Frowein, reports to Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan and 3 May 1948 (NA, box 86); and notes for the record, n.d. [Jun 1947] (BA Z1/603, 170-175).
116. Bipartite Economic Panel, "Encouragement of industrial research in the combined zones," 7 and 13 Mar 1947, and minutes, 18 Mar 1947 (HI, boxes 42-43); Frowein, reports to Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan and 3 May 1948 (NA, box 86); and notes for the record, n.d. [Jun 1947] (BA Z1/603, 170-175).
117. Frowein, "Industrie-Forschungsplan für die Bizone," Wiesbaden, 21 Apr 1948 (BA Z1/424, 15-29).
118. Fröwein, reports of meetings with industrialists (BA Z1/603).
119. Fröwein, report to Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan 1948 (NA, box 86).
120. Remark by O. Dalmer, Merck Inc., in "Stellungnahme" of 6 members and advisors of Research Control Committee to Industry Research Plan, 20 May 1948 (BA Z1/425, 241-267).
121. Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan 1948 (NA, box 86); Clay, remarks on FIAT, 7th meeting of Bipartite Board, minutes, 3 Mar 1947 (HI, Box 35).
122. Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan 1948 (NA, box 86); Clay, remarks on FIAT, 7th meeting of Bipartite Board, minutes, 3 Mar 1947 (HI, Box 35).
123. Research Control Committee, minutes, 27 Jan 1948 (NA, box 86).
124. Ibid., 9 Dec 1947.
125. Reported by Eickemeyer, ibid., 3 May 1948; and Eickemeyer to Rossmann, 27 Apr 1948 (BA Z1/425, 321-322).
126. Research Control Committee, minutes, 3 May 1948 (NA, box 86).
127. Internal L R meeting, 7-8 Apr 1948, minutes (BA Z1/18); and application of Gen. Sec. to Direktorium, 30 Dec 1947 (BA Z1/20, 69-71). See Härtel (ref. 16), 77-79.
128. "Protokoll der Sitzung beim Vorsitzer des Verwaltungsrates des Vereinigten Wirtschaftgebiets, 25.8.48 in Frankfurt" (BA Z1/425, 68-76).
129. Punder, summary of meeting, ibid.
130. Osietzki (ref. 7), chapt. C. More research on British occupation policy in general and on science in particular is needed. Works that refer to British policy in general include M. Balfour and J. Mair, Four-power control in Germany and Austria (London, 1956), and W. Abelshauser, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland: Rekonstruktion und Wachstumsbedingungen in der amerikanischen und britischen Zone (Stuttgart, 1975).
131. Osietzki (ref. 7), chapt. C. More research on British occupation policy in general and on science in particular is needed. Works that refer to British policy in general include M. Balfour and J. Mair, Four-power control in Germany and Austria (London, 1956), and W. Abelshauser, Wirtschaft in Westdeutschland: Rekonstruktion und Wachstumsbedingungen in der amerikanischen und britischen Zone (Stuttgart, 1975).
132. Wissenschaftlicher Rat, minutes, 29 Jun 1948 (HA). British policy toward German science was broadly outlined by F.A. Paneth, "Scientific research in the British zone of Germany," Nature, 161 (1948), 191-192. See also Osietzki (ref. 96).
133. The KWG law was delayed, apparently deliberately, by the Internal Affairs and Communications Directorate. The Allied Legal Directorate was still awaiting the draft law in July 1947; minutes of 109th meeting, 22 and 24 Jul 1947 (HI Box 22). Five months later, on 22 Jan 1948, the Bipartite Board chartered the Max Planck Society. Approval was granted on 15 Jan and announced on 22 Jan 1948, in BIB/P(48)9 (HI Box 34).
134. J. Bernstein, ed., Hitler's uranium club: The secret recordings at Farm Hall (New York, 1995). See M. Walker, Nazi science: Myth, truth and the German atomic bomb (New York, 1995), 233-241.
135. J. Bernstein, ed., Hitler's uranium club: The secret recordings at Farm Hall (New York, 1995). See M. Walker, Nazi science: Myth, truth and the German atomic bomb (New York, 1995), 233-241.
136. Eickemeyer to Hahn, 24 May 1948 (BA Z1/425, 227); Joachim Pretsch, British Research Branch, correspondence with Eickemeyer, 1948 (BA Z1/424).
137. Eickemeyer to Hahn, 24 May 1948 (BA Z1/425, 227); Joachim Pretsch, British Research Branch, correspondence with Eickemeyer, 1948 (BA Z1/424).
138. "Protokoll der Rektoren-Konferenz," Schonberg im Taunus, 18-19 Jul 1947 (BA Z1/1007, 134-147). "Wissenschaft," translated as "scholarship," includes science.
139. Erich Wende, C.H. Becker, Mensch und Politiker: Ein biographischer Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte der Weimarer Republik (Stuttgart, 1959).
140. Kurt Zierold, Forschungsförderung in drei Epochen (Wiesbaden, 1968), part 1; T. Nipperdey and L. Schmugge, 50 Jahre Forschungsförderung in Deutschland: Ein Abriss der Geschichte der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft 1920-1970 (Berlin, 1970).
141. Kurt Zierold, Forschungsförderung in drei Epochen (Wiesbaden, 1968), part 1; T. Nipperdey and L. Schmugge, 50 Jahre Forschungsförderung in Deutschland: Ein Abriss der Geschichte der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft 1920-1970 (Berlin, 1970).
142. This was argued by Paul Forman, "The financial support and political alignment of physicists in Weimar Germany," Minerva, 12 (1974), 39-66; and B. Schröder-Gudehus, "The argument for the self-government and public support of science in Weimar Germany," Minerva, 10 (1972), 537-570.
143. This was argued by Paul Forman, "The financial support and political alignment of physicists in Weimar Germany," Minerva, 12 (1974), 39-66; and B. Schröder-Gudehus, "The argument for the self-government and public support of science in Weimar Germany," Minerva, 10 (1972), 537-570.
144. F. Schmidt-Ott, "Für die Erneuerung unseres gesamten Kulturlebens," Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten, no. 225 (13 Aug 1934), 2.
145. Discussed in Beyerchen (ref. 66); Zierold (ref. 103), part 2; Nipperdey and Schmugge (ref. 103), 49-67; and K.-H. Ludwig, Technik und Ingenieure im Dritten Reich (Konigstein/Ts., 1979).
146. Indicated, for example, in the CDU's "Düsseldorfer Leitsätze vom 15. Juli 1949," reprinted in T. Stammen, ed., Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit: Westdeutsche Innenpolitik 1945-1955 (Munich, 1965), 94-97.
147. Cultural Policy Committee, minutes, 23-25 Apr 1947 (NA, box 103; and BA Z1 /1009).
148. Ibid.
149. Preller, correspondence (BA Z1/423).
150. Nordwestdeutscher Hochschultag, "Protokoll der VII. Tagung in Münster am 9./10. September 1947" (BA Z1/1007, 94-119). See Stamm (ref. 7), 70-85.
151. Nordwestdeutsche Hochschul-Konferenz, "Protokoll der Rektorenbesprechung in Bad Driburg am 14.2.1947" (BA Z1/1007, 49-63).
152. Preller, "Niederschrift über die Rektorenkonferenz der US-Zone in Heidelberg am 21./22.4.1947" (BA Z1/1007, 186-191).
153. Cultural Policy Committee, minutes, 7-8 Jul 1947 (NA, box 103; BA Z1/1009).
154. Ref. 111. The founding of the new Notgemeinschaft is discussed by Stamm (ref. 7), 109-126, and Osietzki (ref. 7), 227-234.
155. Bipartite Board, approval (ref. 98).
156. Reported in Zierold (ref. 103), 278.
157. Ibid., 274.
158. "Protokoll der Kultusministerkonferenz, Stuttgart, Villa Reitzenstein, am 2. Juli 1948" (BA Z1/1009, 50-61).
159. Zierold especially emphasized this (ref. 103), 279; approved bylaws of 11 Jan 1949, ibid., 550-554.
160. Ref. 119.
161. Ibid.
162. Ibid., 59. This was signed by T. Bäuerle, the Culture Minister of Württemberg-Baden.
163. "Niederschrift über eine Sitzung des Wissenschaftlichen Rates für die britische Zone am 28. Juni 1948 nachmittags 16.00 Uhr" (HA, Forschungsrat/Allgemeines).
164. Heisenberg, draft form letters to "Herr Kollege" and "Herr Minister," September 1948 (HA, Forschungsrat/Allgemeines).
165. Letter of 15 Dec 1948, in Parlamentarischer Rat, Verhandlungen des Hauptausschusses (Bonn, 1949), 30th meeting, 6 Jan 1949, 362; reprinted in Heisenberg, Collected works, W. Blum et al., eds, vol. C5 (Munich, 1989), 71.
166. Letter of 15 Dec 1948, in Parlamentarischer Rat, Verhandlungen des Hauptausschusses (Bonn, 1949), 30th meeting, 6 Jan 1949, 362; reprinted in Heisenberg, Collected works, W. Blum et al., eds, vol. C5 (Munich, 1989), 71.
167. Dr. Laforet (CSU), comment, in Verhandlungen, ibid.; Basic Law, article 5, paragraph 3, English version in J.F. Golay, The founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (Chicago, 1958), 219.
168. Dr. Laforet (CSU), comment, in Verhandlungen, ibid.; Basic Law, article 5, paragraph 3, English version in J.F. Golay, The founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (Chicago, 1958), 219.
169. Adenauer to Heisenberg, 6 Jan 1949, and reply of 11 Jan 1949 (HA, Forschungsrat/Allgemeines).
170. "Military Governors' aide memoire for the Parliamentary Council," in Golay (ref. 127), 263-264.
171. Ibid., on 234.
172. "Vortrag von Professor Dr. Werner Heisenberg 'Der Deutsche Forschungsrat'," manuscript, 9 Mar 1949 (HA), published in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 72-76, on 74.
173. H. Eickemeyer, ed., Abschlussbericht des Deutschen Forschungsrats (DFR) über seine Tätigkeit (Munich, 1953), draft and final bylaws, 82, 85.
174. "Aussprache" following Heisenberg's speech, in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 76-86.
175. Gerlach to Heisenberg, 16 Mar and 15 Jun 1949 (HA, Notgemeinschaft).
176. Heisenberg to Gerlach, 20 Jun 1949, ibid.
177. For instance, K. Geiler, president of Notgemeinschaft, to Heisenberg, 11 Jul 1949 (HA, Notgemeinschaft).
178. See Ludwig (ref. 106), 234-241; Zierold (ref. 103), 212-265; and M. Walker, German National Socialism and the quest for nuclear power 1939-1949 (Cambridge, 1989), 129-137.
179. Gerlach to Heisenberg, 15 Jun 1949 (HA. Notgemeinschaft).
180. Heisenberg et al., letter to Parliamentary Council (ref. 126).
181. B. Blout to Heisenberg, 3 May 1949; Heisenberg to K. Geiler, president of NDW, draft, 11 Jan 1951; Heisenberg to G. Hess, president of University of Heidelberg, 8 May 1951 (HA, Notgemeinschaft). Zierold (ref. 103), 297-306, writes of the tension between the DFR and NDW.
182. "Staatsabkommen der Länder des amerikanischen, des britischen und des französischen Besatzungsgebietes über die Finanzierung wissenschaftlicher Forschungseinrichtungen," Königstein/Ts., 1 Apr 1949, reprinted in 50 Jahre Kaiser Wilhelm-Gesellschaft und Max Planck-Gesellschaft 1911-1961 (Bonn, 1961), 227-231. See Osietzki (ref. 7), 238-271; Stamm (ref. 7), 99-108. "Wissenschaft" may also be translated as "scholarship" in general.
183. Heisenberg, "Denkschrift des DFR über die Betreuung der wissenchaftlicher Forschung im Rahmen der Deutschen Bundesregierung," Göttingen, 1 Sep 1949, reprinted in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 87-91. Heisenberg reported Adenauer's request to the second meeting of the DFR, minutes, 16 Jul 1949 (HA, Forschungsrat).
184. Heisenberg to Zenneck, 17 Dec 1949 (HA, Forschungsrat); Geiler (ref. 136).
185. Heisenberg to Dr. Rust in Chancellor's office, 8 Jun 1950 (HA, correspondence). In nearly every memo to Adenauer, Heisenberg regarded nuclear technology in particular as the foundation of Germany's competitive strength. See Eckert (ref. 3).
186. E. Lehnartz, chair of main committee of NDW, to Heisenberg, official and unofficial letters of 17 Oct 1949 (HA, Notgemeinschaft).
187. Adenauer to Heisenberg, 11 May 1951 (HA, correspondence).
188. Heisenberg, "Memorandum des DFR über die Organisation der wissenschaftlichen Forschung in Deutschland," manuscript dated 19 Jun 1951 (HA, Forschungsrat); reprinted and dated 25 Nov 1949 in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 92-96, but without the appendix by Heisenberg, "Erforschung und wirtschaftliche Nutzbarmachung der Atomenergie im Frieden."
189. Heisenberg, "Memorandum des DFR über die Organisation der wissenschaftlichen Forschung in Deutschland," manuscript dated 19 Jun 1951 (HA, Forschungsrat); reprinted and dated 25 Nov 1949 in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 92-96, but without the appendix by Heisenberg, "Erforschung und wirtschaftliche Nutzbarmachung der Atomenergie im Frieden."
190. Adenauer to Heisenberg, 2 and 17 Jul 1951 (HA, correspondence).
191. Heisenberg, "Vorwort," in Eickemeyer (ref. 132), 9-10; reprinted in Heisenberg (ref. 126), 115-116. The fusion is further discussed in Stamm (ref. 7), 126-141.
192. Zierold (ref. 103), 305-312.
193. Federal Ministry for Scientific Research, Bundesbericht Forschung II (Bonn, 1967); and Keck (ref. 2). This is based on my unpublished manuscript, "The West German 'Program for New Technologies,' 1969-1975."
194. Quoted and discussed by Johannes Sobotta, ministry official, Das Bundesministerium für wissenschaftliche Forschung (Bonn, 1969), 35-44.
195. Gundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Bonn, 1989), with additions of 12 May 1969. As a result, the Bund-Länder-Commission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung, which is advised by the Wissenschaftsrat, coordinat d joint undertakings.
196. Bundesminister für Bildung und Wissenschaft, Hochschulrahmengesetz vom 26. Januar 1976 (Koblenz, 1977).