Prevalence of child sexual abuse: A corrective metanalysis

Social Service Review

Volumn 73, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 281-313

  Bolen, Rebecca M ^b   Scannapieco, Maria ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041781185     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/514425     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. David Finkelhor, "What's Wrong with Sex between Adults and Children: Ethics and the Problem of Sexual Abuse," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 49, no. 4 (1979): 692-97; Glen A. Kercher and Marilyn McShane, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Victimization in an Adult Sample of Texas Residents," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 495-501; Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953).
2. David Finkelhor, "What's Wrong with Sex between Adults and Children: Ethics and the Problem of Sexual Abuse," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 49, no. 4 (1979): 692-97; Glen A. Kercher and Marilyn McShane, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Victimization in an Adult Sample of Texas Residents," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 495-501; Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953).
3. David Finkelhor, "What's Wrong with Sex between Adults and Children: Ethics and the Problem of Sexual Abuse," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 49, no. 4 (1979): 692-97; Glen A. Kercher and Marilyn McShane, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Victimization in an Adult Sample of Texas Residents," Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 495-501; Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953).
4. George and Winfield-Laird estimated that only 2 percent were sexually abused, whereas Wyatt estimated that 62 percent were. See L. George and I. Winfield-Laird, "Sexual Assault: Prevalence and Mental Health Consequences" (unpublished final report submitted to the National Institute of Mental Health, Washington, D.C., 1986); Gail E. Wyatt, "The Sexual Abuse of Afro-American and White-American Women in Childhood," Child Abuse and Neglect 9 (1985): 507-19.
5. George and Winfield-Laird estimated that only 2 percent were sexually abused, whereas Wyatt estimated that 62 percent were. See L. George and I. Winfield-Laird, "Sexual Assault: Prevalence and Mental Health Consequences" (unpublished final report submitted to the National Institute of Mental Health, Washington, D.C., 1986); Gail E. Wyatt, "The Sexual Abuse of Afro-American and White-American Women in Childhood," Child Abuse and Neglect 9 (1985): 507-19.
6. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
7. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
8. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
9. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
10. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
11. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
12. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
13. William Feldman, Eva Feldman, John T. Goodman, Patrick J. McGrath, Robert P. Pless, Linda Corsini, and Susan Bennett, "Is Childhood Sexual Abuse Really Increasing in Prevalence? An Analysis of the Evidence," Pediatrics 88 (1991): 29-33; David Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse," Center for the Future of Children 4, no. 2 (1994): 31-53; Kevin M. Gorey and Donald R. Leslie, "The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: Integrative Review Adjustment for Potential Response and Measurement Biases," Child Abuse and Neglect 21 (1997): 391-98; J. M. Leventhal, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in Understanding and Managing Child Sexual Abuse, ed. R. Kim Oates (London: Saunders, 1990), pp. 18-41; Susan L. Painter, "Research on the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: New Directions," Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1986): 323-39. Stefanie D. Peters, Gail E. Wyatt, and David Finkelhor, "Prevalence," in A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, by David Finkelhor, Sharon Araji, Larry Baron, Angela Browne, Stephanie Doyle Peters, and Gail Elizabeth Wyatt (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), pp. 15-59; Anna C. Salter, "Epidemiology of Child Sexual Abuse," in The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research, ed. William O'Donohue and James H. Geer (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 108-38; Timothy F. Wynkoop, Steven C. Capps, and Bobby J. Priest, "Incidence and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse: A Critical Review of Data Collection Procedures," Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 4 (1995): 49-66.
14. Gorey and Leslie.
15. Ibid.
16. Feldman et al.; Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Leventhal; Painter; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor; Salter; Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest.
17. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Leventhal; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor; Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest.
18. Feldman et al.; Painter.
19. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Leventhal; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor; Salter; Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest.
20. The historical studies were as follows: Feldman et al.; Leventhal; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor. The reviews that included studies from 1979 to the present include: Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Painter; Salter; Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest.
21. The Gorey and Leslie study was the only quantitative analysis.
22. Ibid.
23. Feldman et al. (n. 3 above).
24. Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above).
25. Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above).
26. The reviews that required studies to have random sampling are Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse" (n. 3 above); and Painter (n. 3 above). Feldman et al. reviewed only studies that used a cutoff for age of victimization of 14 years.
27. The reviews that required studies to have random sampling are Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse" (n. 3 above); and Painter (n. 3 above). Feldman et al. reviewed only studies that used a cutoff for age of victimization of 14 years.
28. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Leventhal; Salter (n. 3 above).
29. Gorey and Leslie.
30. Feldman et al.
31. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Gorey and Leslie; Leventhal; Salter.
32. Painter; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkeihor (n. 3 above); Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest (n. 3 above).
33. Painter; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkeihor (n. 3 above); Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest (n. 3 above).
34. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor.
35. Wynkoop, Capps, and Priest.
36. Feldman et al.
37. Finkelhor, "Current Information on the Scope and Nature of Child Sexual Abuse"; Painter.
38. Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above).
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. 2.
42. Ibid., p. 395.
43. Ibid.
44. Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor.
45. For example, Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above) report that the average prevalence for studies with response rates of less than 60 percent was 27.8, a figure that only seems possible if Russell's and Wyatt's studies were included in this category. Yet, only 19 percent of the women in Russell's study who were selected to participate declined to do so. Another 17 percent of household members declined to give a listing of members in that household. In Wyatt's study, 27 percent of women meeting demographic criteria refused to participate. See Diana E. H. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse," Child Abuse and Neglect 7, no. 2 (1983): 133-46; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
46. For example, Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above) report that the average prevalence for studies with response rates of less than 60 percent was 27.8, a figure that only seems possible if Russell's and Wyatt's studies were included in this category. Yet, only 19 percent of the women in Russell's study who were selected to participate declined to do so. Another 17 percent of household members declined to give a listing of members in that household. In Wyatt's study, 27 percent of women meeting demographic criteria refused to participate. See Diana E. H. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse," Child Abuse and Neglect 7, no. 2 (1983): 133-46; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
47. Gorey and Leslie report that the six studies of female child sexual abuse using a broad definition (i.e., including noncontact abuse) had an aggregate prevalence of 36 percent. This is only possible, however, if Russell's and Wyatt's studies were included in this category. See Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt.
48. Gorey and Leslie also may have committed a multiplication error. They report that response rate explains 11 percent of the variance but also report a β of .228. However, the square of .228 is .052 (or 5 percent of the variance).
49. Gorey and Leslie.
50. Keckley Market Research, Sexual Abuse in Nashville: A Report on Incidence and Long Term Effects (unpublished paper prepared for WSM-TV, Nashville, 1983); J. Murphy, βPrevalence of Child Sexual Abuse and Consequent Victimization in the General Populationβ (paper presented at the third National Family Violence Research Conference, Durham, N.C., 1987). Both papers are cited in Finkelhor (n. 3 above).
51. Keckley Market Research, Sexual Abuse in Nashville: A Report on Incidence and Long Term Effects (unpublished paper prepared for WSM-TV, Nashville, 1983); J. Murphy, βPrevalence of Child Sexual Abuse and Consequent Victimization in the General Populationβ (paper presented at the third National Family Violence Research Conference, Durham, N.C., 1987). Both papers are cited in Finkelhor (n. 3 above).
52. Gorey and Leslie.
53. Keckley Market Research; Gallup Poll, Disciplining Children in America (Princeton, N.J.: Gallup Organization, 1995).
54. While the Moore, Nord, and Peterson study did not report gender breakdowns, a previous report of preliminary data indicated that 51 percent of the respondents were female. These percentages were used to compute the number of male and female respondents for the 1991 study. Kristin A. Moore, Christine W. Nord, and James L. Peterson, "Nonvoluntary Sexual Activity among Adolescents," Family Planning Perspective 21 (1989): 110-14.
55. Gorey and Leslie.
56. Those that reported response and refusal rates are the Gallup Poll; Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
57. Those that reported response and refusal rates are the Gallup Poll; Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
58. Christopher Bagley and Richard Ramsay, "Sexual Abuse in Childhood: Psychosocial Outcomes and Implications for Social Work Practice," Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality 4 (1986): 33-47; Moore, Nord, and Peterson; Sharon C. Wilsnack, Albert D. Klassen, Nancy D. Vogeltanz, and T. Robert Harris, "Childhood Sexual Abuse and Women's Substance Abuse: National Survey" (paper presented at the American Psychological Association Conference on Psychosocial and Behavior Factors in Women's Health, Washington, D.C., May 12-14, 1994).
59. Christopher Bagley and Richard Ramsay, "Sexual Abuse in Childhood: Psychosocial Outcomes and Implications for Social Work Practice," Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality 4 (1986): 33-47; Moore, Nord, and Peterson; Sharon C. Wilsnack, Albert D. Klassen, Nancy D. Vogeltanz, and T. Robert Harris, "Childhood Sexual Abuse and Women's Substance Abuse: National Survey" (paper presented at the American Psychological Association Conference on Psychosocial and Behavior Factors in Women's Health, Washington, D.C., May 12-14, 1994).
60. Christopher Bagley, "Is the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Decreasing? Evidence from a Random Sample of 750 Young Adult Women," Psychological Reports 66 (1990): 1037-38; Feldman et al. (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above); D. E. H. Russell, Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, and Workplace Harassment (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984).
61. Christopher Bagley, "Is the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Decreasing? Evidence from a Random Sample of 750 Young Adult Women," Psychological Reports 66 (1990): 1037-38; Feldman et al. (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above); D. E. H. Russell, Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, and Workplace Harassment (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984).
62. Christopher Bagley, "Is the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Decreasing? Evidence from a Random Sample of 750 Young Adult Women," Psychological Reports 66 (1990): 1037-38; Feldman et al. (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above); D. E. H. Russell, Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, and Workplace Harassment (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984).
63. Christopher Bagley, "Is the Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse Decreasing? Evidence from a Random Sample of 750 Young Adult Women," Psychological Reports 66 (1990): 1037-38; Feldman et al. (n. 3 above); Leventhal (n. 3 above); D. E. H. Russell, Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, and Workplace Harassment (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984).
64. Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor (n. 3 above).
65. Russell, Sexual Exploitation.
66. David Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse: New Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1984).
67. Joyce C. Abma, Anjani Chandra, William Mosher, Linda Peterson, and Linda Piccinino, Fertility, Family Planning, and Women's Health: New Data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth, 23d ser., no. 19 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1997).
68. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse" (n. 32 above); Wyatt.
69. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse" (n. 32 above); Wyatt.
70. David Finkelhor, Gerald T. Hotaling, I. A. Lewis, and Christine Smith, "Sexual Abuse in a National Survey of Adult Men and Women: Prevalence, Characteristics, and Risk Factors," Child Abuse and Neglect 14 (1990): 19-28.
71. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt.
72. Gallup Poll (n. 38 above); Kercher and McShane (n. 1 above); Harriet L. MacMillan, Jan E. Fleming, Nico Trocme, Michael H. Boyle, Maria Wong, Yvonne A. Racine, William R. Beardslee, and David R. Offord, "Prevalence of Child Physical and Sexual Abuse in the Community," Journal of the American Medical Association 276, no. 2 (1997): 131-35.
73. Gallup Poll (n. 38 above); Kercher and McShane (n. 1 above); Harriet L. MacMillan, Jan E. Fleming, Nico Trocme, Michael H. Boyle, Maria Wong, Yvonne A. Racine, William R. Beardslee, and David R. Offord, "Prevalence of Child Physical and Sexual Abuse in the Community," Journal of the American Medical Association 276, no. 2 (1997): 131-35.
74. Gallup Poll (n. 38 above); Kercher and McShane (n. 1 above); Harriet L. MacMillan, Jan E. Fleming, Nico Trocme, Michael H. Boyle, Maria Wong, Yvonne A. Racine, William R. Beardslee, and David R. Offord, "Prevalence of Child Physical and Sexual Abuse in the Community," Journal of the American Medical Association 276, no. 2 (1997): 131-35.
75. The following studies asked only if sexual things had been done, had been attempted, or were unwanted: Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Keckley Market Research (n. 36 above). The following asked respondents whether they had been sexually abused: Kercher and McShane; L. Timnick, "Children's Abuse Reports Reliable, Most Believe," Los Angeles Times (August 26, 1985); J. Wolf, "Adult Reports of Sexual Abuse during Childhood: Results of a Statewide Telephone Survey in Kentucky" (paper presented at the forty-seventh annual conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, St. Petersburg Beach, May 15-19, 1992).
76. The following studies asked only if sexual things had been done, had been attempted, or were unwanted: Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Keckley Market Research (n. 36 above). The following asked respondents whether they had been sexually abused: Kercher and McShane; L. Timnick, "Children's Abuse Reports Reliable, Most Believe," Los Angeles Times (August 26, 1985); J. Wolf, "Adult Reports of Sexual Abuse during Childhood: Results of a Statewide Telephone Survey in Kentucky" (paper presented at the forty-seventh annual conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, St. Petersburg Beach, May 15-19, 1992).
77. The following studies asked only if sexual things had been done, had been attempted, or were unwanted: Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Keckley Market Research (n. 36 above). The following asked respondents whether they had been sexually abused: Kercher and McShane; L. Timnick, "Children's Abuse Reports Reliable, Most Believe," Los Angeles Times (August 26, 1985); J. Wolf, "Adult Reports of Sexual Abuse during Childhood: Results of a Statewide Telephone Survey in Kentucky" (paper presented at the forty-seventh annual conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, St. Petersburg Beach, May 15-19, 1992).
78. Abma et al.; Moore, Nord, and Peterson (n. 39 above); Benjamin Saunders, Lorenz A. Villeponteaux, Julie A. Lipovsky, Dean G. Kilpatrick, and Lois J. Veronen, "Child Sexual Assault as a Risk Factor for Mental Disorders among Women: A Community Survey," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7, no. 2 (1992): 189-204.
79. Abma et al.; Moore, Nord, and Peterson (n. 39 above); Benjamin Saunders, Lorenz A. Villeponteaux, Julie A. Lipovsky, Dean G. Kilpatrick, and Lois J. Veronen, "Child Sexual Assault as a Risk Factor for Mental Disorders among Women: A Community Survey," Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7, no. 2 (1992): 189-204.
80. Murphy (n. 36 above) stated that the perpetrator had to be an adult. Studies that said the perpetrator had to be at least 5 years older are: Diana M. Elliott and John Briere, "Sexual Abuse Trauma among Professional Women: Validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC 40)," Child Abuse and Neglect 16 (1992): 391-98; Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Fern E. Springs and William N. Friedrich, "Health Risk Behaviors and Medical Sequelae of Childhood Sexual Abuse," Mayo Clinic Proceedings 67 (1992): 527-32.
81. Murphy (n. 36 above) stated that the perpetrator had to be an adult. Studies that said the perpetrator had to be at least 5 years older are: Diana M. Elliott and John Briere, "Sexual Abuse Trauma among Professional Women: Validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC 40)," Child Abuse and Neglect 16 (1992): 391-98; Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Fern E. Springs and William N. Friedrich, "Health Risk Behaviors and Medical Sequelae of Childhood Sexual Abuse," Mayo Clinic Proceedings 67 (1992): 527-32.
82. Murphy (n. 36 above) stated that the perpetrator had to be an adult. Studies that said the perpetrator had to be at least 5 years older are: Diana M. Elliott and John Briere, "Sexual Abuse Trauma among Professional Women: Validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC 40)," Child Abuse and Neglect 16 (1992): 391-98; Finkelhor, Child Sexual Abuse; Fern E. Springs and William N. Friedrich, "Health Risk Behaviors and Medical Sequelae of Childhood Sexual Abuse," Mayo Clinic Proceedings 67 (1992): 527-32.
83. Bagley and Ramsey (n. 42 above) and Wyatt (n. 2 above) used threat or force to discern whether specific incidents were abusive. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; and Wilsnack et al. (n. 42 above) used a cutoff of 14 years of age for victims to discern whether specific incidents were abusive.
84. Bagley and Ramsey (n. 42 above) and Wyatt (n. 2 above) used threat or force to discern whether specific incidents were abusive. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; and Wilsnack et al. (n. 42 above) used a cutoff of 14 years of age for victims to discern whether specific incidents were abusive.
85. Bagley and Ramsey (n. 42 above) and Wyatt (n. 2 above) used threat or force to discern whether specific incidents were abusive. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; and Wilsnack et al. (n. 42 above) used a cutoff of 14 years of age for victims to discern whether specific incidents were abusive.
86. Bagley and Ramsey (n. 42 above) and Wyatt (n. 2 above) used threat or force to discern whether specific incidents were abusive. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; and Wilsnack et al. (n. 42 above) used a cutoff of 14 years of age for victims to discern whether specific incidents were abusive.
87. Moore, Nord, and Peterson; Christopher Bagley, "The Prevalence of Mental Health Sequels of Child Sexual Abuse in a Community Sample of Women Aged 18 to 27," Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 10, no. 1 (1991): 103-16.
88. Linda M. Williams, Jane A. Siegel, and Judith J. Pomeroy, "Validity of Women's Self-Reports of Documented Child Sexual Abuse," in The Science of Self-Report: Implications for Research and Practice, ed. A. Stone and J. S. Turkkan (Mahway, N.J.: Earlbaum, in press), pp. 211-26.
89. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse" (n. 32 above); Wyatt.
90. Gorey and Leslie (n. 3 above).
91. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
92. Andrea J. Sedlak and Diane D. Broadhurst, Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect: Final Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).
93. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt.
94. Gorey and Leslie.
95. Ibid.
96. See n. 33 above.
97. Diana E. H. Russell and Rebecca M. Bolen, The Epidemic of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse in America Today (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, in press).
98. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
99. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse"; Wyatt (n. 2 above).
100. The Australian study is by Judy Martin, Jessie Anderson, Sarah Romans, Paul Mullen, and Martine L. O'Shea, "Asking about Child Sexual Abuse: Methodological Implications of a Two Stage Survey," Child Abuse and Neglect 17 (1993): 383-92. See Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor (n. 3 above) for a discussion of the advantages of face-to-face interviews.
101. The Australian study is by Judy Martin, Jessie Anderson, Sarah Romans, Paul Mullen, and Martine L. O'Shea, "Asking about Child Sexual Abuse: Methodological Implications of a Two Stage Survey," Child Abuse and Neglect 17 (1993): 383-92. See Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhor (n. 3 above) for a discussion of the advantages of face-to-face interviews.
102. Finkelhor et al. (n. 49 above).
103. Russell and Bolen.
104. Linda M. Williams, "Recall of Childhood Trauma: A Prospective Study of Women's Memories of Child Sexual Abuse," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62 (1994): 1167-76.
105. Rebecca M. Bolen, "Predicting Risk to Be Sexually Abused: A Comparison of Logistic Regressing to Event History Analysis," Child Maltreatment 3, no. 2 (1998): 157-70.
106. Russell, Sexual Exploitation (n. 43 above).
107. Mary P. Koss, "The Underdetection of Rape: Methodological Choices Influence Incidence Estimates," Journal of Social Issues 48 (1992): 61-75; Russell and Bolen.
108. Williams.
109. Williams, Siegel, and Pomeroy (n. 57 above).
110. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse" (n. 32 above); Wyatt (n. 2 above).
111. Russell, "The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse" (n. 32 above); Wyatt (n. 2 above).
112. Williams, Siegel, and Pomeroy found that eight screen questions were necessary to elicit 90 percent of the first reports of child sexual abuse. The resulting estimates based on eight and 14 screen questions, respectively, are 30-40 percent.
113. Sedlak and Broadhurst (n. 61 above).
114. Based upon a population estimate of 33,100,000 females and a prevalence estimate of 25 percent, 8,275,000 female children will have been sexually abused prior to the age of 18. Given a 1.8 incidence rate per abused child (Russell, Sexual Exploitation), the concomitant number of incidents is 14,895,000. Dividing by 18, 827,500 incidents of abuse to female children occur each year. Dividing this number by the total female population equates to an incidence rate of 25.0/1,000. Similar calculations were made using prevalence estimates of 33 percent and 40 percent.
115. 225,000 divided by 827,500.
116. Russell, Sexual Exploitation.
117. "GAO Calls for an Enlarged Federal-Local Partnership," Child Protection Report (August 7, 1997), p. 132.