An end to national science: The meaning and the extension of local knowledge

History of Science

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 2002, Pages

  Pyenson, Lewis ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA AT LAFAYETTE   (United States)

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EID: 0041413245     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (190)

1. Arvid Brodersen, "National character: An old problem re-examined", Diogenes, xx (1957), 84-102, p. 99.
2. James Albisetti, "Commentary", in Science in Germany, ed. by Kathryn M. Olesko (Osiris, v; Chicago, 1989), 285-90, pp. 286-7.
3. A current case in point is the Save British Science Society, for which there is no hint of a special character to science done in the British Isles. Its five tests for whether British science has been "saved" all relate to government funding for scientific activity. "Science week begins: Prospect of British science being saved five scientific tests must be met", SBS PR02/07, document released 8 March 2002. I am grateful to Rob Iliffe for pointing to the relevance of the Society.
4. This sense of local knowledge does not betray the cautions offered by Clifford Geertz in an address to the Law School at Yale University: "Local knowledge: Fact and law in comparative perspective", in Geertz, Local knowledge: Further essays in interpretive anthropology (New York, 1983), 167-234. Geertz alludes to the insights that may be obtained in history of science by comparing local instances, but he does not sustain a thesis in radical relativism.
5. Joseph Ben-David, The scientist's role in society: A comparative study (1971: Chicago, 1984), 88-107; cf. Mary Jo Nye, "Scientific decline: Is quantitative evaluation enough?", Isis, lxxv (1984), 697-708.
6. Joseph Ben-David, The scientist's role in society: A comparative study (1971: Chicago, 1984), 88-107; cf. Mary Jo Nye, "Scientific decline: Is quantitative evaluation enough?", Isis, lxxv (1984), 697-708.
7. Maurice Crosland, The Society of Arcueil: A view of French science at the time of Napoleon I (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), makes a case, however, for Napoleon as a patron of science.
8. Mary Jo Nye, Science in the provinces: Scientific communities and provincial leadership in France, 1860-1930 (Berkeley, 1986); Gerald Geison, The private life of Louis Pasteur (Princeton, 1995); Liliane Beaulieu, "Bourbaki's art of memory", Osiris, xiv (1999), 219-51.
9. Mary Jo Nye, Science in the provinces: Scientific communities and provincial leadership in France, 1860-1930 (Berkeley, 1986); Gerald Geison, The private life of Louis Pasteur (Princeton, 1995); Liliane Beaulieu, "Bourbaki's art of memory", Osiris, xiv (1999), 219-51.
10. Mary Jo Nye, Science in the provinces: Scientific communities and provincial leadership in France, 1860-1930 (Berkeley, 1986); Gerald Geison, The private life of Louis Pasteur (Princeton, 1995); Liliane Beaulieu, "Bourbaki's art of memory", Osiris, xiv (1999), 219-51.
11. Leonard Woolf, "Citizens of the world", in The modern state, ed. by Mary Adams (New York, 1933), 76-86, pp. 77, 81.
12. Eric Hobsbawm, "From social history to the history of society", in Hobsbawn, On history (London, 1997), 71-93, p. 92.
13. André Siegfried, Switzerland: A democratic way of life, transl. by Edward Fitzgerald (London, 1950), 199-200.
14. Mircea Muşat and Gheorghe Zaharia, "Romania", in Assertion of unitary independent national states in Central and Southeast Europe (1821-1923), ed. by Viorica Moisuc and Ion Calafeteanu, transl. by Mary Lazarescu, Adriana Ionescu-Parau, and Alexandru Alkalay (Bucharest, 1980), 15-55, p. 15.
15. Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the history of European state-making", in The formation of national states in Western Europe, ed. by Tilly (Princeton, 1975), 3-83, p. 12.
16. Dieter Langewiesche, "Nation, Nationalismus, Nationalstaat: Forschungsstand und Forschungsperspektiven", Neue politische Literatur, xlv (1995), 190-236, p. 219.
17. Joep Leerseen, "Caractères des nations et imagologie", Dix-septième siècle, li (1999), 119-23.
18. Hebe M. C. Vessuri, "¿Estilos nacionales en ciencia?" Quipu, xi (1994), 103-18.
19. Morse Peckham, Man's rage for chaos: Biology, behavior, and the arts (New York, 1961), 21-22.
20. Lewis Pyenson, "Uses of cultural history: Karl Lamprecht in Argentina", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, to appear.
21. Pierre Duhem, The aim and structure of physical theory: transl. by Philip P. Wiener (1906; New York, 1962); John Theodore Merz, A history of European scientific thought in the nineteenth century (1904; New York, 1965).
22. Pierre Duhem, The aim and structure of physical theory: transl. by Philip P. Wiener (1906; New York, 1962); John Theodore Merz, A history of European scientific thought in the nineteenth century (1904; New York, 1965).
23. Albert Broder, "Enseignement technique et croissance économique en Allemagne et en France, 1870-1914: Quelques éléments en vue d'une analyse approfondie", in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. by Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 66-91, pp. 66-67, where Broder discusses national stereotypes in the writings of Jules Verne.
24. Henry Guerlac, "Science and French national strength (1951)", in Guerlac, Essays and papers in the history of modern science (Baltimore, 1977), 491-514, p. 492.
25. Robert A. Nye, "The history of sexuality in context: National sexological traditions", Science in context, iv (1991), 387-406.
26. Jonathan Harwood, "National styles in science: Genetics in Germany and the United States between the World Wars", Isis, lxxviii (1987), 390-414.
27. Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London, 1983).
28. Ludmilla Jordanova, "Science and national identity", in Sciences et langues en Europe, ed. by Roger Chartier and Pietro Corsi (Paris, 1996), 221-31, pp. 225, 227.
29. Anna Neill, "Bucaneer ethnography: Nature, culture, and nation in the journals of William Dampier", Eighteenth-century studies, xxxiii (1999-2000), 165-80.
30. John M. Watanabe, "Culturing identities, the state, and national consciousness in late nineteenth-century Western Guatemala", Bulletin of Latin American research, xix (2000), 321-40.
31. Lorraine Daston, "The ideal and reality of the Republic of Letters in the Enlightenment", Science in context, iv (1991), 367-86.
32. George Brown Goode, The origins of natural science in America, ed. by Sally Kohlstedt (Washington, 1991).
33. Andrew Jamison, "National styles of science and technology: A comparative model", Sociological inquiry lvii (1987) 144-58. See also Rune Premfors, "National policy styles and higher education in France, Sweden and the United Kingdom", European journal of education, xvi (1981), 253-62.
34. Andrew Jamison, "National styles of science and technology: A comparative model", Sociological inquiry lvii (1987) 144-58. See also Rune Premfors, "National policy styles and higher education in France, Sweden and the United Kingdom", European journal of education, xvi (1981), 253-62.
35. For one example: Lewis Pyenson, "Pure learning and political economy: Science and European expansion in the Age of Imperialism", in New trends in the history of science, ed. by R. P. W. Visser H. J. M. Bos, L. C. Palm, and H. A. M. Snelders (Amsterdam, 1989), 209-78.
36. Thomas Parke Hughes, Networks of power: Electrification in Western, society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983). For broad strokes in policy: Gary P. Freeman, "National styles and policy sectors: Explaining structured variation", Journal of public policy, v (1985), 467-96.
37. Thomas Parke Hughes, Networks of power: Electrification in Western, society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983). For broad strokes in policy: Gary P. Freeman, "National styles and policy sectors: Explaining structured variation", Journal of public policy, v (1985), 467-96.
38. Persuasive narrative dominates a volume devoted to the first director of the Conseil National de Recherches Scientifiques in France, Henri Laugier en son siècle, ed. by Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac and Jean-François Picard (Paris, 1995).
39. Alan Beyerchen, Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the physics community in the Third Reich (New Haven, 1977), p. ix.
40. Spencer R. Weart, Scientists in power (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. vii.
41. Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and internationalism in science, 1880-1939: Four studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge, 1992), 35-37. Also: Elizabeth Crawford, Terry Shin, and Sverker Sörlin, "The nationalization and denationalization of the sciences: An introductory essay", in Denationalizing science: The contexts of international scientific practice, ed. by Crawford, Shin, and Sörlin (Dordrecht, 1993), 1-42. The editors herald the views expressed in the present text, but contributors to the volume do not appear to contest the notion of national science.
42. Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and internationalism in science, 1880-1939: Four studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge, 1992), 35-37. Also: Elizabeth Crawford, Terry Shin, and Sverker Sörlin, "The nationalization and denationalization of the sciences: An introductory essay", in Denationalizing science: The contexts of international scientific practice, ed. by Crawford, Shin, and Sörlin (Dordrecht, 1993), 1-42. The editors herald the views expressed in the present text, but contributors to the volume do not appear to contest the notion of national science.
43. Dirk J. Struik, Yankee science in the making: Science and engineering in New England from colonial times to the Civil War (1948; New York, 1991), 277. For the comparison: Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown (eds), Making medical history: The life and times of Henry E. Sigerist (Baltimore, 1997).
44. Dirk J. Struik, Yankee science in the making: Science and engineering in New England from colonial times to the Civil War (1948; New York, 1991), 277. For the comparison: Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown (eds), Making medical history: The life and times of Henry E. Sigerist (Baltimore, 1997).
45. Dirk J. Struik, "The sociology of mathematics revisited: A personal note", Science and society, 1 (1986), 280-99, p. 293.
46. Antonie Pannekoek, A history of astronomy (London, 1961).
47. Dirk J. Struik, Het land van Stevin en Huygens (1958: Nijmegen, 1979).
48. Klaas van Berkel, "Introduction", in A history of science in The Netherlands: Survey, themes and reference, ed. by Klaas van Berkel, Albert van Helden, and Lodewijk Palm (Leiden, 1999), 3-11, p. 1.
49. Van Berkel, Science in The Netherlands (ref. 40), 10.
50. The matter is elaborated in Jacob Heilbrunn, "The news from everywhere: Does global thinking threaten local knowledge? The Social Science Research Council debates the future of Area Studies", Lingua Franca, vi (1996), 48-56.
51. Estevão de Rezende Martins, "Lateinamerika: Eigenweg oder Labyrinth?", Geschichte und Gegenwart, xiv (1995), 15-32, p. 19.
52. Juan José Saldaña, "Marcos conceptuales de la historia de las ciencias en Latinoamérica: Postivismo y economicismo", in El perfil de la ciencia en América, ed. by Saldaña (Mexico City, 1986), 57-80, pp. 63-65 for the universalist historiography; and Saldaña, "Wissenschaft und kulturelle Identität: Die Geschichte der Wissenschaft in Lateinamerika", in Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Lateinamerika, ed. by Martin Guntau (Rostock, 1992), 7-23, pp. 9-12 for how Latin American writers copied European notions of science.
53. Juan José Saldaña, "Marcos conceptuales de la historia de las ciencias en Latinoamérica: Postivismo y economicismo", in El perfil de la ciencia en América, ed. by Saldaña (Mexico City, 1986), 57-80, pp. 63-65 for the universalist historiography; and Saldaña, "Wissenschaft und kulturelle Identität: Die Geschichte der Wissenschaft in Lateinamerika", in Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Lateinamerika, ed. by Martin Guntau (Rostock, 1992), 7-23, pp. 9-12 for how Latin American writers copied European notions of science.
54. Among the most useful volumes: Enrique Herrero Ducloux, Las ciencias qnímicas (Buenos Aires, 1923); Claro Cornelio Dassen, Las matemáticas en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1924); Ramón G. Loyarte, La evolución de la física (Buenos Aires, 1924); Enrique Chaudet, La evolución de la astronomía durante los últimos cincuenta años (1872-1922) (Buenos Aires, 1926).
55. Among the most useful volumes: Enrique Herrero Ducloux, Las ciencias qnímicas (Buenos Aires, 1923); Claro Cornelio Dassen, Las matemáticas en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1924); Ramón G. Loyarte, La evolución de la física (Buenos Aires, 1924); Enrique Chaudet, La evolución de la astronomía durante los últimos cincuenta años (1872-1922) (Buenos Aires, 1926).
56. Among the most useful volumes: Enrique Herrero Ducloux, Las ciencias qnímicas (Buenos Aires, 1923); Claro Cornelio Dassen, Las matemáticas en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1924); Ramón G. Loyarte, La evolución de la física (Buenos Aires, 1924); Enrique Chaudet, La evolución de la astronomía durante los últimos cincuenta años (1872-1922) (Buenos Aires, 1926).
57. Among the most useful volumes: Enrique Herrero Ducloux, Las ciencias qnímicas (Buenos Aires, 1923); Claro Cornelio Dassen, Las matemáticas en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1924); Ramón G. Loyarte, La evolución de la física (Buenos Aires, 1924); Enrique Chaudet, La evolución de la astronomía durante los últimos cincuenta años (1872-1922) (Buenos Aires, 1926).
58. Fernando de Azevedo (ed.), As ciências no Brasil (Saõ Paulo, 1955).
59. José Babini, La evolución del pensamiento científico en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1954); Mario Mariscotti, El secreto atómico de Huemul: Crónica del origen de la energía atómica en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1985), on Ronald Richter as a mountebank.
60. José Babini, La evolución del pensamiento científico en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1954); Mario Mariscotti, El secreto atómico de Huemul: Crónica del origen de la energía atómica en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1985), on Ronald Richter as a mountebank.
61. Alfredo D. Bateman, Paginas para la historia de la ingeniería colombiana (Bogotá, 1972), appearing as vol. cxiv of the Biblioteca de Historia Nacional of the Academia Colombiana de Historia.
62. Eli de Gortari, La ciencia en la história de México (Mexico City, 1980).
63. Mário Guimarães Feri and Shozo Motoyama (eds), História das ciências no Brasil (São Paulo, 1979); Emilio Quevedo V., Carlos Eduardo Vasco, Diana Obregón, and Luis Enrique Orozco (eds), Historia social de la ciencia en Colombia (Bogotá, 1993).
64. Mário Guimarães Feri and Shozo Motoyama (eds), História das ciências no Brasil (São Paulo, 1979); Emilio Quevedo V., Carlos Eduardo Vasco, Diana Obregón, and Luis Enrique Orozco (eds), Historia social de la ciencia en Colombia (Bogotá, 1993).
65. Among the most significant volumes: Luis A. Santaló, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. I: Matemática (Buenos Aires, 1972); José Federico Westerkamp, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. II: Física (Buenos Aires, 1975); Luis B. Mazoti and Juan H. Hunziker, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. IV: Genética (Buenos Aires, 1976); Angel L. Cabrera, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972, VI: Botánica (Buenos Aires, 1979).
66. Among the most significant volumes: Luis A. Santaló, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. I: Matemática (Buenos Aires, 1972); José Federico Westerkamp, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. II: Física (Buenos Aires, 1975); Luis B. Mazoti and Juan H. Hunziker, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. IV: Genética (Buenos Aires, 1976); Angel L. Cabrera, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972, VI: Botánica (Buenos Aires, 1979).
67. Among the most significant volumes: Luis A. Santaló, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. I: Matemática (Buenos Aires, 1972); José Federico Westerkamp, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. II: Física (Buenos Aires, 1975); Luis B. Mazoti and Juan H. Hunziker, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. IV: Genética (Buenos Aires, 1976); Angel L. Cabrera, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972, VI: Botánica (Buenos Aires, 1979).
68. Among the most significant volumes: Luis A. Santaló, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. I: Matemática (Buenos Aires, 1972); José Federico Westerkamp, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. II: Física (Buenos Aires, 1975); Luis B. Mazoti and Juan H. Hunziker, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972. IV: Genética (Buenos Aires, 1976); Angel L. Cabrera, Evolución de las ciencias en la República Argentina 1923-1972, VI: Botánica (Buenos Aires, 1979).
69. Simon Schwartzman, Formação da comunidade científica no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1979); Gildo Magalhães, Força et luz: Eletricidade e modernização na República velha (São Paulo, 2000).
70. Simon Schwartzman, Formação da comunidade científica no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1979); Gildo Magalhães, Força et luz: Eletricidade e modernização na República velha (São Paulo, 2000).
71. Raymond Duchesne, La science et le pouvoir au Québec (1920-1965) (Quebec, 1978); Ministre d'Etat du Développement culturel, La politique québécoise du développement culturel (2 vols, Quebec, 1978). Both books appear with the official publisher of the Province of Quebec. Consider Léander Bergeron, Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec ([Montreal]. 1970), 4-5: "The histories told to us [by our élites] about our past were conceived to keep us, the Québécois people, outside history.... We Québécois live with colonialism. As a people, we are prisoners. To change our situation it is first necessary to understand it."
72. Raymond Duchesne, La science et le pouvoir au Québec (1920-1965) (Quebec, 1978); Ministre d'Etat du Développement culturel, La politique québécoise du développement culturel (2 vols, Quebec, 1978). Both books appear with the official publisher of the Province of Quebec. Consider Léander Bergeron, Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec ([Montreal]. 1970), 4-5: "The histories told to us [by our élites] about our past were conceived to keep us, the Québécois people, outside history.... We Québécois live with colonialism. As a people, we are prisoners. To change our situation it is first necessary to understand it."
73. Raymond Duchesne, La science et le pouvoir au Québec (1920-1965) (Quebec, 1978); Ministre d'Etat du Développement culturel, La politique québécoise du développement culturel (2 vols, Quebec, 1978). Both books appear with the official publisher of the Province of Quebec. Consider Léander Bergeron, Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec ([Montreal]. 1970), 4-5: "The histories told to us [by our élites] about our past were conceived to keep us, the Québécois people, outside history.... We Québécois live with colonialism. As a people, we are prisoners. To change our situation it is first necessary to understand it."
74. Juan José Saldaña (ed.), Los orígenes de la ciencia nacional (Mexico City, 1992). Beltrán's commanding presence is reflected in his editing of the Memorias del Primer Coloquio Mexicano de Historia de la Ciencia (2 vols. Mexico City, 1964), a collection that compares favourably with all subsequent volumes of the kind on science in Latin America, and also in his editing of the first five numbers of the Anales de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Tecnología (1969-79), which compare favourably with periodicals in Europe and the United States.
75. Juan José Saldaña (ed.), Los orígenes de la ciencia nacional (Mexico City, 1992). Beltrán's commanding presence is reflected in his editing of the Memorias del Primer Coloquio Mexicano de Historia de la Ciencia (2 vols. Mexico City, 1964), a collection that compares favourably with all subsequent volumes of the kind on science in Latin America, and also in his editing of the first five numbers of the Anales de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Tecnología (1969-79), which compare favourably with periodicals in Europe and the United States.
76. Juan José Saldaña (ed.), Los orígenes de la ciencia nacional (Mexico City, 1992). Beltrán's commanding presence is reflected in his editing of the Memorias del Primer Coloquio Mexicano de Historia de la Ciencia (2 vols. Mexico City, 1964), a collection that compares favourably with all subsequent volumes of the kind on science in Latin America, and also in his editing of the first five numbers of the Anales de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Tecnología (1969-79), which compare favourably with periodicals in Europe and the United States.
77. María Margaret Lopes, O Brasil descobre a pesquisa científica: Os museus e as ciências naturais no século XIX (Saõ Paulo, 1997); Marcelo Montserrat, Ciencia, historia y sociedad en la Argentina del siglo XIX (Buenos Aires, 1993); Marcelo Montserrat, Usos de la memoria: Razón, ideología e imaginación histórical (Buenos Aires, 1996).
78. María Margaret Lopes, O Brasil descobre a pesquisa científica: Os museus e as ciências naturais no século XIX (Saõ Paulo, 1997); Marcelo Montserrat, Ciencia, historia y sociedad en la Argentina del siglo XIX (Buenos Aires, 1993); Marcelo Montserrat, Usos de la memoria: Razón, ideología e imaginación histórical (Buenos Aires, 1996).
79. María Margaret Lopes, O Brasil descobre a pesquisa científica: Os museus e as ciências naturais no século XIX (Saõ Paulo, 1997); Marcelo Montserrat, Ciencia, historia y sociedad en la Argentina del siglo XIX (Buenos Aires, 1993); Marcelo Montserrat, Usos de la memoria: Razón, ideología e imaginación histórical (Buenos Aires, 1996).
80. Pedro M. Pruna, "National science in a colonial context: The Royal Academy of Sciences of Havana, 1861-1898", Isis, lxxxv (1994), 412-26; Luisa Rodriguez-Sala, "Científicos y técnicos en la Nueva España del siglo XVI, sus roles socio-profesionales como raíces de una ciencia nacional", Quipu, x (1993), 319-34, an assertion in advance of evidence; Jill Fitzell, "Cultural colonialism and new languages of power: Scientific progress in nineteenth century Ecuador", Journal of historical sociology, ix (1996), 290-314. Fitzell's postmodernist rhetoric is unpersuasive, and her conclusions are questionable: "Beginning in the mid-1880s, there was a general hiatus in European scientists' accounts of visits to Ecuador for approximately 40 years" (p. 310). Cf. Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing mission: Exact sciences and French overseas expansion, 1830-1940 (Baltimore, 1993), 310-29, for extended European visiting and reporting.
81. Pedro M. Pruna, "National science in a colonial context: The Royal Academy of Sciences of Havana, 1861-1898", Isis, lxxxv (1994), 412-26; Luisa Rodriguez-Sala, "Científicos y técnicos en la Nueva España del siglo XVI, sus roles socio-profesionales como raíces de una ciencia nacional", Quipu, x (1993), 319-34, an assertion in advance of evidence; Jill Fitzell, "Cultural colonialism and new languages of power: Scientific progress in nineteenth century Ecuador", Journal of historical sociology, ix (1996), 290-314. Fitzell's postmodernist rhetoric is unpersuasive, and her conclusions are questionable: "Beginning in the mid-1880s, there was a general hiatus in European scientists' accounts of visits to Ecuador for approximately 40 years" (p. 310). Cf. Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing mission: Exact sciences and French overseas expansion, 1830-1940 (Baltimore, 1993), 310-29, for extended European visiting and reporting.
82. Pedro M. Pruna, "National science in a colonial context: The Royal Academy of Sciences of Havana, 1861-1898", Isis, lxxxv (1994), 412-26; Luisa Rodriguez-Sala, "Científicos y técnicos en la Nueva España del siglo XVI, sus roles socio-profesionales como raíces de una ciencia nacional", Quipu, x (1993), 319-34, an assertion in advance of evidence; Jill Fitzell, "Cultural colonialism and new languages of power: Scientific progress in nineteenth century Ecuador", Journal of historical sociology, ix (1996), 290-314. Fitzell's postmodernist rhetoric is unpersuasive, and her conclusions are questionable: "Beginning in the mid-1880s, there was a general hiatus in European scientists' accounts of visits to Ecuador for approximately 40 years" (p. 310). Cf. Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing mission: Exact sciences and French overseas expansion, 1830-1940 (Baltimore, 1993), 310-29, for extended European visiting and reporting.
83. Pedro M. Pruna, "National science in a colonial context: The Royal Academy of Sciences of Havana, 1861-1898", Isis, lxxxv (1994), 412-26; Luisa Rodriguez-Sala, "Científicos y técnicos en la Nueva España del siglo XVI, sus roles socio-profesionales como raíces de una ciencia nacional", Quipu, x (1993), 319-34, an assertion in advance of evidence; Jill Fitzell, "Cultural colonialism and new languages of power: Scientific progress in nineteenth century Ecuador", Journal of historical sociology, ix (1996), 290-314. Fitzell's postmodernist rhetoric is unpersuasive, and her conclusions are questionable: "Beginning in the mid-1880s, there was a general hiatus in European scientists' accounts of visits to Ecuador for approximately 40 years" (p. 310). Cf. Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing mission: Exact sciences and French overseas expansion, 1830-1940 (Baltimore, 1993), 310-29, for extended European visiting and reporting.
84. Georg G. Iggers, "The decline of the classical national tradition of German historiography", History and theory, vi (1967), 382-412. p. 383. In France, "the role of leaders of the national conscience, played by the great German historians, has no equivalent", although Ernest Lavisse has been identified as "the pope and the marshal of the academic world". Pierre Nora, "Ernest Lavisse: Son rôle dans la formation du sentiment national", Revue historique, ccviii (1962), 73-106, pp. 74, 85.
85. Georg G. Iggers, "The decline of the classical national tradition of German historiography", History and theory, vi (1967), 382-412. p. 383. In France, "the role of leaders of the national conscience, played by the great German historians, has no equivalent", although Ernest Lavisse has been identified as "the pope and the marshal of the academic world". Pierre Nora, "Ernest Lavisse: Son rôle dans la formation du sentiment national", Revue historique, ccviii (1962), 73-106, pp. 74, 85.
86. Iggers, "Decline" (ref. 57), 385.
87. Georg G. Iggers, "Nationalgeschichte und Geschichtswissenschaft: Einige Bemerkungen zu zeitgenössischen historiographischen Entwicklungen". Bohemia, xxxii (1991), 90-98, p. 97.
88. Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich, "Introduction", in The Scientific Revolution in national context, ed. by Porter and Teich (Cambridge, 1992), 1-10, pp. 2, 6.
89. Robert Iliffe, "Foreign bodies: Travel, empire and the early Royal Society of London, part II. The land of experimental knowledge", Canadian journal of history, xxxiv (1999), 23-50, Oldenburg to Samuel Hartlib cited on p. 30, Sprat summarized on p. 39.
90. Alice Stroup, Royal funding of the Parisian Académie Royal des Sciences during the 1690s (American Philosophical Society, Transactions, lxxvii/4; Philadelphia, 1987), 128.
91. Ben-David, Scientist's role (ref. 5).
92. George Basalla, "The spread of Western science revisited", in Mundialización de la ciencia y cultura nacional, ed. by Antonio Lafuente, A. Elena, and Maria Luisa Ortega (Madrid, 1993), 599-603, p. 601. In the contributions to the Mundialización volume, 'national science' generally signifies 'science in a small, administratively centralized, independent or quasi-independent state'. See Antonio E. Ten, "Ciencias puras y prestigio nacional: Astronomía colonial y astronomía republicana en Sudamérica", pp. 715-24.
93. George Basalla, "The spread of Western science revisited", in Mundialización de la ciencia y cultura nacional, ed. by Antonio Lafuente, A. Elena, and Maria Luisa Ortega (Madrid, 1993), 599-603, p. 601. In the contributions to the Mundialización volume, 'national science' generally signifies 'science in a small, administratively centralized, independent or quasi-independent state'. See Antonio E. Ten, "Ciencias puras y prestigio nacional: Astronomía colonial y astronomía republicana en Sudamérica", pp. 715-24.
94. Maurice Crosland, "History of science in a national context", The British journal for the history of science, x (1977), 95-113, p. 111.
95. Hans Hauge, "Nationalizing science", in Sciences et langues en Europe, ed. by Roger Chartier and Pietro Corsi (Paris, 1996), 159-68.
96. Nathan Reingold, Science, American style (New Brunswick, 1991), 6.
97. Alistair C. Crombie, Styles of scientific thinking in the European tradition (3 vols, London, 1994), i, pp. x-xi, 48, 58, 39-40, 43, 88, in sequence.
98. Diana Crane, The transformation of the avant-garde: The New York art world, 1940-1985 (Chicago, 1987), 19, 21.
99. Diana Crane, Fashion and its social agendas: Class, gender, and identity in clothing (Chicago, 2000), 2, 136, 236, 248.
100. Anna Wessely, "Transposing 'style' from the history of art to the history of science", Science in context, iv (1991), 265-78, p. 276.
101. Violante, cited in Karl-Egon Lönne, "Regional- und Nationalgeschichtsschreibung in Italien", Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte, cxxx (1994), 13-29, p. 15.
102. Celia Applegate, "A Europe of regions: Reflections on the historiography of sub-national places in modern times", American historical review, civ (1999), 1157-82, pp. 1166, 1170-1, 1173, 1177, 1181.
103. There is also a local character to national military laboratories, whether a naval observatory in Washington or a nuclear-bomb facility in Los Alamos.
104. David Turnbull, "Reframing science and other local knowledge traditions", Futures, xxix (1997), 551-62, pp. 552-3.
105. Reijer Hooykaas, "Science in Manueline style", in Obras completas de D. João de Castro, iv, ed. by Armando Cortesão and Luís de Albuquerque (Coimbra, 1982), 231-426, pp. 422-4, 426.
106. José María López Piñero and Víctor Navarro Brotons, Història de la ciència al país Valencià (Valencia, 1995). The argument is elaborated in the authors' "Estudio histórico" of their collection, La actividad científica valenciana de la Ilustración (2 vols, Valencia, 1998), i, 13-108, where they observe the precipitous decline of science in early nineteenth-century Valencia.
107. José María López Piñero and Víctor Navarro Brotons, Història de la ciència al país Valencià (Valencia, 1995). The argument is elaborated in the authors' "Estudio histórico" of their collection, La actividad científica valenciana de la Ilustración (2 vols, Valencia, 1998), i, 13-108, where they observe the precipitous decline of science in early nineteenth-century Valencia.
108. Roberta Balstad Miller, "Science and society in the early career of H. F. Verwoerd", Journal of southern African studies, xix (1993), 635-61, for Verwoerd's views that the state should be "a tool of the institutions and organisations of civil society" (p. 657).
109. Ronald L. Numbers and Janet S. Numbers, "Science in the Old South: A reappraisal", in Science and medicine in the Old South, ed. by Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, 1989), 9-35, pp. 11, 22-23, 25-35; the object of scrutiny: Thomas Cary Johnson, Jr, Scientific interests in the Old South (New York, 1936).
110. Ronald L. Numbers and Janet S. Numbers, "Science in the Old South: A reappraisal", in Science and medicine in the Old South, ed. by Ronald L. Numbers and Todd L. Savitt (Baton Rouge, 1989), 9-35, pp. 11, 22-23, 25-35; the object of scrutiny: Thomas Cary Johnson, Jr, Scientific interests in the Old South (New York, 1936).
111. Roger L. Geiger, "Introduction", in The American college in the nineteenth century, ed. by Geiger (Nashville, 2000), 1-36, pp. 19-21.
112. In The American college in the nineteenth century, ed. by Geiger (ref. 80): Roger L. Geiger, "The rise and fall of useful knowledge", 153-68; Michael Sugrue, "'We desired our future rulers to be educated men"', 91-114; James Turner and Paul Bernard, "The German model and the graduate school", 221-41.
113. In The American college in the nineteenth century, ed. by Geiger (ref. 80): Roger L. Geiger, "The rise and fall of useful knowledge", 153-68; Michael Sugrue, "'We desired our future rulers to be educated men"', 91-114; James Turner and Paul Bernard, "The German model and the graduate school", 221-41.
114. In The American college in the nineteenth century, ed. by Geiger (ref. 80): Roger L. Geiger, "The rise and fall of useful knowledge", 153-68; Michael Sugrue, "'We desired our future rulers to be educated men"', 91-114; James Turner and Paul Bernard, "The German model and the graduate school", 221-41.
115. In The American college in the nineteenth century, ed. by Geiger (ref. 80): Roger L. Geiger, "The rise and fall of useful knowledge", 153-68; Michael Sugrue, "'We desired our future rulers to be educated men"', 91-114; James Turner and Paul Bernard, "The German model and the graduate school", 221-41.
116. John Rennie Short, "A new mode of thinking: Creating a national geography in the early republic", in Surveying the record: North American scientific exploration to 1930, ed. by Edward C. Carter II (American Philosophical Society, Memoirs, ccxxxi: Philadelphia, 1999), 19-50, p. 50. Short emphasizes that Jedidiah Morse, a late eighteenth-century geographer called the "father of American geography", expressed intense distaste for "a dissipated, slave-owning south", which he contrasted to "an idealization of his home state of Connecticut" (p. 35).
117. In his fine study, Science and the ante-bellum American college (American Philosophical Society, Memoirs, cix; Philadelphia, 1975), Stanley M. Guralnick focuses overwhelmingly on Northeastern institutions.
118. Michael O'Brien, "On observing the quicksand", American historical review, civ (1999), 1202-7, p. 1203.
119. John Charles Dawson, Lakanal the regicide: A biographical and historical study of the career of Joseph Lakanal (University, Ala., 1948), 123, citing the opinion of Edward Laroque Tinker in 1932; Tinker also for the reported stay of Jerome Bonaparte as a tutor in Louisiana.
120. John Duffy (ed), The Rudolph Malax history of medicine in Louisiana, i (Baton Rouge, 1958), 160 for Masdevall: Roland Lamontagne. "L'influence de Maurepas sur les sciences: Le botaniste Jean Prat à la Nouvelle-Orléans, 1735-1746", Revue d'histoire des sciences, xlix (1996), 113-24. Duffy claims that the Masdevall work is the first to be published in Louisiana. Printers were active under the Spanish regime, however, and it has been contended that the first volume to appear was a 21 -page folio mémoire, addressed to the French king, asking France to depose the new Spanish governor Antonio de Ulloa and retake the colony. John Tebbel, A history of book publishing in the United States, i: The creation of an industry, 1630-1865 (New York, 1972), 126.
121. John Duffy (ed), The Rudolph Malax history of medicine in Louisiana, i (Baton Rouge, 1958), 160 for Masdevall: Roland Lamontagne. "L'influence de Maurepas sur les sciences: Le botaniste Jean Prat à la Nouvelle-Orléans, 1735-1746", Revue d'histoire des sciences, xlix (1996), 113-24. Duffy claims that the Masdevall work is the first to be published in Louisiana. Printers were active under the Spanish regime, however, and it has been contended that the first volume to appear was a 21 -page folio mémoire, addressed to the French king, asking France to depose the new Spanish governor Antonio de Ulloa and retake the colony. John Tebbel, A history of book publishing in the United States, i: The creation of an industry, 1630-1865 (New York, 1972), 126.
122. John Duffy (ed), The Rudolph Malax history of medicine in Louisiana, i (Baton Rouge, 1958), 160 for Masdevall: Roland Lamontagne. "L'influence de Maurepas sur les sciences: Le botaniste Jean Prat à la Nouvelle-Orléans, 1735-1746", Revue d'histoire des sciences, xlix (1996), 113-24. Duffy claims that the Masdevall work is the first to be published in Louisiana. Printers were active under the Spanish regime, however, and it has been contended that the first volume to appear was a 21 -page folio mémoire, addressed to the French king, asking France to depose the new Spanish governor Antonio de Ulloa and retake the colony. John Tebbel, A history of book publishing in the United States, i: The creation of an industry, 1630-1865 (New York, 1972), 126.
123. It is instructive to consider the powerful scientist-administrators of our own time, the chemist Margaret Thatcher and nuclear-submarine officer Jimmy Carter, in the light of Ulloa and Franklin.
124. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
125. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
126. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
127. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
128. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
129. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
130. The secondary literature on these matters is extensive. See Dictionary of scientific biography, xiii, s. v. "Ulloa"; Antonio Lafuente and Antonio Mazuecos, Los caballeros del punto fijo: Ciencia, política y aventura en la expedición geodésica hispanofrancesa al virreinato del Perú en siglo XVIII (Barcelona, 1987); Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés. El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753-I831) (Madrid, 1988), in which, however, Ulloa hardly figures; Manuel López Arroyo (ed.), Astronomía v cartografía de los siglos XVIII y XIX (Madrid, 1987); R. E. Chandler, "Ulloa's account of the 1768 revolt", Louisiana history, xxvii (1986), 407-37; Miguel Molina Martínez, Antonio de Ulloa en Huancavélica (Granada, 1995). A major new study is by Francisco de Solano Pérez-Lila, La passion de reformar: Antonio de Ulloa, marino y científico 1716-1795 (Seville, 1999). I follow the title of the Noticias americanas from the Buenos Aires reprint of 1944.
131. Dawson, Lakanal (ref. 85), 121-9. Within living memory, Cajuns (the name taken in English by descendants of Acadians transported from Nova Scotia to Louisiana after the British conquest of French Canada) have referred to English-speakers as "Americans". The history of French Louisiana is rich and complex, with French-speaking immigrants arriving from many shores over the past 250 years. An orientation may be found in Carl Brasseaux, The founding of New Acadia: The beginnings of Acadian life in Louisiana, 1765-1803 (Baton Rouge, 1997).
132. Dawson, Lakanal (ref. 85), 121-9. Within living memory, Cajuns (the name taken in English by descendants of Acadians transported from Nova Scotia to Louisiana after the British conquest of French Canada) have referred to English-speakers as "Americans". The history of French Louisiana is rich and complex, with French-speaking immigrants arriving from many shores over the past 250 years. An orientation may be found in Carl Brasseaux, The founding of New Acadia: The beginnings of Acadian life in Louisiana, 1765-1803 (Baton Rouge, 1997).
133. Roger Hahn, The anatomy of a scientific institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley, 1971), 234-9, 245-9.
134. Dawson, Lakanal (ref. 85), 133.
135. See Jean-François Gauvin, "Brief international inventory of Jean Antoine Nollet type scientific instruments", in Lewis Pyenson and Jean-François Gauvin (eds). The art of teaching physics: The eighteenth-century demonstration apparatus of Jean Antoine Nollet (Sillery, Quebec, 2002), 175-201.
136. Codman Hislop, Eliphalet Nott (Middletown, Conn., 1971), 226. Other collections of scientific apparatus and their value are given in Guralnick, Ante-bellum American college (ref. 83), 72-74.
137. Codman Hislop, Eliphalet Nott (Middletown, Conn., 1971), 226. Other collections of scientific apparatus and their value are given in Guralnick, Ante-bellum American college (ref. 83), 72-74.
138. Thomas G. Dyer, "Science in the antebellum college", in Numbers and Savitt (eds), Science and medicine in the Old South (ref. 79), 36-54, pp. 42, 45.
139. Charles Coleman Sellars, Dickinson College: A history (Middletown, Conn., 1973), 168.
140. Howard H. Peckham, The making of the University of Michigan, 1817-1967 (Ann Arbor, 1967), 20.
141. Samuel Eliot Morison, Three centuries of Harvard, 1687-1936 (Cambridge, Mass., 1937), 217.
142. William Arba Ellis, Norwich University, 1819-1911: Her history, her graduates, her roll of honor, i (Montpelier, Vt., 1911), 9-10.
143. Richard P. McCormick, Rutgers: A bicentennial history (New Brunswick, 1966), 44, 46.
144. Frederick Rudolph, Mark Hopkins and the log: Williams College, 1836-1872 (New Haven, 1956), 10, 136.
145. Nathan Reingold, "Introduction", in Papers of Joseph Henry, ii, ed. by Reingold et al. (Washington, 1975), pp. xiii-xxxi, see pp. xvii-xviii.
146. Lakanal mentions the academic provenance of his successor in a letter to Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire of 1 May 1830. Henry Jouin, Lakanal en Amérique d'après sa correspondance inédite (1815-1837) (Besançon, 1904) [reprinted from the Revue idéaliste], 29.
147. Lakanal mentions the academic provenance of his successor in a letter to Etienne Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire of 1 May 1830. Henry Jouin, Lakanal en Amérique d'après sa correspondance inédite (1815-1837) (Besançon, 1904) [reprinted from the Revue idéaliste], 29.
148. Dawson, Lakanal (ref. 85), 155.
149. John P. Dyer, Tulane: The biography of a university, 1834-1965 (New York, 1966).
150. Henry Lyons, Record of the Royal Society of London (London, 1940); Institut de France (Pierre Gauja), Index biographique de l'Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1979).
151. Henry Lyons, Record of the Royal Society of London (London, 1940); Institut de France (Pierre Gauja), Index biographique de l'Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1979).
152. The passages of Sylvester and Secchi resemble the passage of Octavio Mossotti in Buenos Aires (1827-35) and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault in New Granada (1821-32). In Argentina around 1900, Italians who immigrated temporarily were called golondrinos, or swallows (the word also designates military deserters); the term seems appropriate here, too. Máximo Barón, Octavio F. Mossotti: En el amanecer de la ciencia Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981); Frederick William James McCosh, Boussingault: Chemist and agriculturist (Dordrecht, 1984).
153. The passages of Sylvester and Secchi resemble the passage of Octavio Mossotti in Buenos Aires (1827-35) and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault in New Granada (1821-32). In Argentina around 1900, Italians who immigrated temporarily were called golondrinos, or swallows (the word also designates military deserters); the term seems appropriate here, too. Máximo Barón, Octavio F. Mossotti: En el amanecer de la ciencia Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1981); Frederick William James McCosh, Boussingault: Chemist and agriculturist (Dordrecht, 1984).
154. James X. Corgan (ed.), The geological sciences in the antebellum South (University, Ala., 1982), Norman B. Wilkinson, E. I. Du Pont, botaniste: The beginning of a tradition (Charlottesville, Va., 1972), and James J. Walsh, "Catholic achievements in science", in Catholic builders of the nation, ed. by C. E. McGuire (Boston, 1923), 353-87, pp. 356-9, for informative discussions. A significant survey, still fresh, is: Jean F. Leroy (ed.), Les botanistes français en Amérique du Nord avant 1850 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, lxiii; Paris, 1957), providing information on several score of French naturalists. French explorers in the United States are absent from Numa Broc's survey, "Les explorateurs français du XIXe siècle reconsidérés", Revue française d'historie d'Outre-Mer, lxix (1982), 237-73, 323-59.
155. James X. Corgan (ed.), The geological sciences in the antebellum South (University, Ala., 1982), Norman B. Wilkinson, E. I. Du Pont, botaniste: The beginning of a tradition (Charlottesville, Va., 1972), and James J. Walsh, "Catholic achievements in science", in Catholic builders of the nation, ed. by C. E. McGuire (Boston, 1923), 353-87, pp. 356-9, for informative discussions. A significant survey, still fresh, is: Jean F. Leroy (ed.), Les botanistes français en Amérique du Nord avant 1850 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, lxiii; Paris, 1957), providing information on several score of French naturalists. French explorers in the United States are absent from Numa Broc's survey, "Les explorateurs français du XIXe siècle reconsidérés", Revue française d'historie d'Outre-Mer, lxix (1982), 237-73, 323-59.
156. James X. Corgan (ed.), The geological sciences in the antebellum South (University, Ala., 1982), Norman B. Wilkinson, E. I. Du Pont, botaniste: The beginning of a tradition (Charlottesville, Va., 1972), and James J. Walsh, "Catholic achievements in science", in Catholic builders of the nation, ed. by C. E. McGuire (Boston, 1923), 353-87, pp. 356-9, for informative discussions. A significant survey, still fresh, is: Jean F. Leroy (ed.), Les botanistes français en Amérique du Nord avant 1850 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, lxiii; Paris, 1957), providing information on several score of French naturalists. French explorers in the United States are absent from Numa Broc's survey, "Les explorateurs français du XIXe siècle reconsidérés", Revue française d'historie d'Outre-Mer, lxix (1982), 237-73, 323-59.
157. James X. Corgan (ed.), The geological sciences in the antebellum South (University, Ala., 1982), Norman B. Wilkinson, E. I. Du Pont, botaniste: The beginning of a tradition (Charlottesville, Va., 1972), and James J. Walsh, "Catholic achievements in science", in Catholic builders of the nation, ed. by C. E. McGuire (Boston, 1923), 353-87, pp. 356-9, for informative discussions. A significant survey, still fresh, is: Jean F. Leroy (ed.), Les botanistes français en Amérique du Nord avant 1850 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, lxiii; Paris, 1957), providing information on several score of French naturalists. French explorers in the United States are absent from Numa Broc's survey, "Les explorateurs français du XIXe siècle reconsidérés", Revue française d'historie d'Outre-Mer, lxix (1982), 237-73, 323-59.
158. James X. Corgan (ed.), The geological sciences in the antebellum South (University, Ala., 1982), Norman B. Wilkinson, E. I. Du Pont, botaniste: The beginning of a tradition (Charlottesville, Va., 1972), and James J. Walsh, "Catholic achievements in science", in Catholic builders of the nation, ed. by C. E. McGuire (Boston, 1923), 353-87, pp. 356-9, for informative discussions. A significant survey, still fresh, is: Jean F. Leroy (ed.), Les botanistes français en Amérique du Nord avant 1850 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, lxiii; Paris, 1957), providing information on several score of French naturalists. French explorers in the United States are absent from Numa Broc's survey, "Les explorateurs français du XIXe siècle reconsidérés", Revue française d'historie d'Outre-Mer, lxix (1982), 237-73, 323-59.
159. Duffy, Rudolph Matas history (ref. 86), 488-95 for the separate communities of English-speaking and French-speaking physicians and for the domination of the French speakers.
160. Archives of the Province of New Orleans, Loyola University. Two maps: "Missiones Provincae Lugdunensis" and "Missio Neo-Aurelianensis", undated but prior to 1900; Thomas Clancy, "The antebellum Jesuits of the New Orleans Province, 1837-1861". Louisiana history, xxxiv (1993), 327-43; William V. Bangert, A history of the Society of Jesus (St Louis, Mo., 1972); Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939); Albert Hubert Biever. The Jesuits in New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley: Jubilee memorial (New Orleans, 1924). A summary of administrative history in Raymond H. Schmandt, "An overview of institutional establishments in the antebellum southern Church", in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on church and culture, ed. by Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, 1983), 53-76.
161. Archives of the Province of New Orleans, Loyola University. Two maps: "Missiones Provincae Lugdunensis" and "Missio Neo-Aurelianensis", undated but prior to 1900; Thomas Clancy, "The antebellum Jesuits of the New Orleans Province, 1837-1861". Louisiana history, xxxiv (1993), 327-43; William V. Bangert, A history of the Society of Jesus (St Louis, Mo., 1972); Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939); Albert Hubert Biever. The Jesuits in New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley: Jubilee memorial (New Orleans, 1924). A summary of administrative history in Raymond H. Schmandt, "An overview of institutional establishments in the antebellum southern Church", in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on church and culture, ed. by Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, 1983), 53-76.
162. Archives of the Province of New Orleans, Loyola University. Two maps: "Missiones Provincae Lugdunensis" and "Missio Neo-Aurelianensis", undated but prior to 1900; Thomas Clancy, "The antebellum Jesuits of the New Orleans Province, 1837-1861". Louisiana history, xxxiv (1993), 327-43; William V. Bangert, A history of the Society of Jesus (St Louis, Mo., 1972); Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939); Albert Hubert Biever. The Jesuits in New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley: Jubilee memorial (New Orleans, 1924). A summary of administrative history in Raymond H. Schmandt, "An overview of institutional establishments in the antebellum southern Church", in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on church and culture, ed. by Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, 1983), 53-76.
163. Archives of the Province of New Orleans, Loyola University. Two maps: "Missiones Provincae Lugdunensis" and "Missio Neo-Aurelianensis", undated but prior to 1900; Thomas Clancy, "The antebellum Jesuits of the New Orleans Province, 1837-1861". Louisiana history, xxxiv (1993), 327-43; William V. Bangert, A history of the Society of Jesus (St Louis, Mo., 1972); Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939); Albert Hubert Biever. The Jesuits in New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley: Jubilee memorial (New Orleans, 1924). A summary of administrative history in Raymond H. Schmandt, "An overview of institutional establishments in the antebellum southern Church", in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on church and culture, ed. by Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, 1983), 53-76.
164. Archives of the Province of New Orleans, Loyola University. Two maps: "Missiones Provincae Lugdunensis" and "Missio Neo-Aurelianensis", undated but prior to 1900; Thomas Clancy, "The antebellum Jesuits of the New Orleans Province, 1837-1861". Louisiana history, xxxiv (1993), 327-43; William V. Bangert, A history of the Society of Jesus (St Louis, Mo., 1972); Roger Baudier, The Catholic Church in Louisiana (New Orleans, 1939); Albert Hubert Biever. The Jesuits in New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley: Jubilee memorial (New Orleans, 1924). A summary of administrative history in Raymond H. Schmandt, "An overview of institutional establishments in the antebellum southern Church", in Catholics in the Old South: Essays on church and culture, ed. by Randall M. Miller and Jon L. Wakelyn (Macon, 1983), 53-76.
165. Schmandt, "Overview" (ref. 109), 72.
166. Michael Kenny, Catholic culture in Alabama: Centenary story of Spring Hill College, 1830-1930 (New York, 1931), for an exhaustive history; here pp. 69-70, 97, 104.
167. Kenny, Catholic culture (ref. 111), 135, 139, 142.
168. Allan P. Farrell, The Jesuit code of liberal education: Development and scope of the Ratio Studiorium [sic] (Milwaukee, 1938), 385-6, 389-90.
169. Cornelius M. Buckley (ed.), A Frenchman, a chaplain, a rebel: The war letters of Pere Louis-Hippolyte Gache, S.J. (Chicago, 1981); Gache and Cornette entered the Society of Jesus together at Avignon, and Buckley reproduces a number of letters from Gache to Cornette. The available accounts of Cornette conflict with Frank Safford, The ideal of the practical: Colombia's struggle to form a technical elite (Austin, 1976), 119-20, where the governor of Antioquia Province, Mariano Ospina, reported in 1845 that the Jesuits were unwilling to convert a colegio into a university at Medellín because "the old fathers do not know anything more than their Latin and their Spanish theology, and perhaps Greek and metaphysics, things of little profit to us.... They lind the teaching of modern languages, mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. distasteful". The evident inaccuracies of Ospina's assessment suggest a deeper antipathy to the Jesuits.
170. Cornelius M. Buckley (ed.), A Frenchman, a chaplain, a rebel: The war letters of Pere Louis-Hippolyte Gache, S.J. (Chicago, 1981); Gache and Cornette entered the Society of Jesus together at Avignon, and Buckley reproduces a number of letters from Gache to Cornette. The available accounts of Cornette conflict with Frank Safford, The ideal of the practical: Colombia's struggle to form a technical elite (Austin, 1976), 119-20, where the governor of Antioquia Province, Mariano Ospina, reported in 1845 that the Jesuits were unwilling to convert a colegio into a university at Medellín because "the old fathers do not know anything more than their Latin and their Spanish theology, and perhaps Greek and metaphysics, things of little profit to us.... They lind the teaching of modern languages, mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. distasteful". The evident inaccuracies of Ospina's assessment suggest a deeper antipathy to the Jesuits.
171. George A. St Paul, "Menology of New Orleans Province", typescript in the library of St Charles College, Grand Coteau, Louisiana, p. 61 for Cornette's death and for the affiliation with Paris.
172. Kenney, Catholic culture (ref. 111), 275, 222, 226-7, 235, 261.
173. Kenney, Catholic culture (ref. 111), 128-9.
174. Kenney, Catholic culture (ref. 111), 136.
175. Cornelius M. Buckley, Nicolas Point, SJ: His life and Northwest Indian chronicles (Chicago, 1989), 13, 21, 41, 52-53, 128.
176. Buckley, Nicolas Point (ref. 119), 137, 146; Daniel G. Paz, The priesthoods and apostasies of Pierce Connelly (New York, 1986); Radegunde Flaxman, A woman styled hold: The life of Cornelia Connelly 1809-1879 (London, 1991).
177. Buckley, Nicolas Point (ref. 119), 137, 146; Daniel G. Paz, The priesthoods and apostasies of Pierce Connelly (New York, 1986); Radegunde Flaxman, A woman styled hold: The life of Cornelia Connelly 1809-1879 (London, 1991).
178. Buckley, Nicolas Point (ref. 119), 137, 146; Daniel G. Paz, The priesthoods and apostasies of Pierce Connelly (New York, 1986); Radegunde Flaxman, A woman styled hold: The life of Cornelia Connelly 1809-1879 (London, 1991).
179. James Rodger Fleming, Meteorology in America, 1800-1870 (Baltimore, 1990), 179.
180. Biever, Jesuits in New Orleans (ref. 109), 98 for the observatory; Baudier, Catholic Church (ref. 109), 423 for the years. No doubt the telescope did not rival the 18-inch-aperture instrument constructed in 1861 by Alvan Clark for the University of Mississippi and delivered to the University of Michigan. Johnson, Scientific interests (ref. 79), 29.
181. Biever, Jesuits in New Orleans (ref. 109), 98 for the observatory; Baudier, Catholic Church (ref. 109), 423 for the years. No doubt the telescope did not rival the 18-inch-aperture instrument constructed in 1861 by Alvan Clark for the University of Mississippi and delivered to the University of Michigan. Johnson, Scientific interests (ref. 79), 29.
182. Biever, Jesuits in New Orleans (ref. 109), 98 for the observatory; Baudier, Catholic Church (ref. 109), 423 for the years. No doubt the telescope did not rival the 18-inch-aperture instrument constructed in 1861 by Alvan Clark for the University of Mississippi and delivered to the University of Michigan. Johnson, Scientific interests (ref. 79), 29.
183. Bruce Sinclair, "Americans abroad: Science and cultural nationalism in the early nineteenth century", in The sciences in the American context: New perspectives, ed. by Nathan Reingold (Washington, 1979), 35-53, pp. 35, 48.
184. Johnson, Scientific interests (ref. 79), 172, 174; Joseph Ewan, "The growth of learned and scientific societies in the southeastern United States to 1860", in The pursuit of knowledge in the early American republic: American scientific and learned societies from colonial times to the Civil War, ed. by Alexandra Oleson and Sanborn C. Brown (Baltimore, 1976), 208-18, p. 213.
185. Johnson, Scientific interests (ref. 79), 172, 174; Joseph Ewan, "The growth of learned and scientific societies in the southeastern United States to 1860", in The pursuit of knowledge in the early American republic: American scientific and learned societies from colonial times to the Civil War, ed. by Alexandra Oleson and Sanborn C. Brown (Baltimore, 1976), 208-18, p. 213.
186. Lester D. Stephens, "Scientific societies in the Old South: The Elliott Society and the New Orleans Academy of Sciences", in Numbers and Savitt (eds). Science and medicine (ref. 79), 55-78, p. 75.
187. The present focus ignores spontaneous enrolment of Southern, especially Louisiana students at secular institutions of higher learning in France, notably the Ecole Central des Arts et Manufactures. Léon Guillet, Cent ans de la vie de l'Ecole Central des Arts et Manufactures (Paris, 1929), 413, The school's archives at Châtenay-Malabry await inquiry.
188. Anderson, Imagined communities (ref. 23), 64.
189. For example, in Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago, 1996), a work contending "there was no such thing as the Scientific Revolution" (p. 1). the section "Natural knowledge and state power", 123-35, is remarkable for not addressing in any way how the state marshalled science for political ends. Examples are limited to circumstances like Galileo's naming the moons of Jupiter after the family who would pay his bills (not, significantly, after the family's nation-state, for it was a gesture to secure future funding from a particular patron), Francis Bacon's allusive writings about "taking all knowledge to be my province", and the equally vague desire of the inmates of "Solomon's House" in the New Atlantis to labour for "enlarging the bounds of Human Empire". It seems to me that notwithstanding the gratuitous use of the word "state" in the pages just cited, this postmodernist work has the state and the nation quite receding in favour of regional élites who reside in London. Florence and Paris and participate in autonomous, interdiscursive groups for discussion and experimentation, the scientific academies.
190. Theresa Craig, Edith Wharton, a house full of rooms: Architecture, interiors, and gardens (New York, 1996), 14.