Lessons learned from the exercise of universal jurisdiction in respect of gross human rights offenses

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 940-974

  Kamminga, Menno T ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0041381170     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2001.0057     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Application and Request for the Indication of a Provisional Measure by the Democratic Republic of the Congo against Belgium, 17 Oct. 2000. The indication of a provisional measure was refused by the Court on 8 December 2000 on the grounds that the matter was no longer urgent since the accused was no longer Foreign Minister. Texts available at 〈http://www.icj-cij.org.html〉.
2. Yves Sandoz, Penal Aspects of International Humanitarian Law, in INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 209, 230 (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., 1986).
3. For details, see app.
4. See Kenneth C. Randall, Universal Jurisdiction under International Law, 66 TEX. L. REV. 785, 788 (1988).
5. In the United States universal jurisdiction has been exercised with some success for the purpose of obtaining civil law remedies under the Alien Tort Claims Act and the Torture Victim Protection Act. For an overview, see Beth Stephens, Expanding Remedies for Human Rights Abuses: Civil Litigation in Domestic Courts, 40 GERMAN Y.B. INT'L L. 117 (1997).
6. See overview provided in Willard B. Cowles, Trials of War Criminals (Non-Nuremberg), 42 AM. J. INT'L L. 299(1948).
7. See A.R. Carnegie, Jurisdiction over Violations of the Laws and Customs of War, 39 BRITISH Y.B. INT'L L. 402, 422-23 (1963).
8. Attorney-General v. Adolf Eichmann, Supreme Court of Israel, 29 May 1962, 36 ILR 5, 298-304; see J.E.S. Fawcett, The Eichmann Case, 38 BRITISH Y.B. INT'L L. 181, 202-08 (1962).
9. See Rena Hozore Reiss, The Extradition of John Demjanjuk: War Crimes, Universality Jurisdiction, and the Political Offense Doctrine, 20 CORNELL INT'L L. J. 281, 302-07 (1987).
10. The term protective principle refers to the basis of jurisdiction when the crime affects the security of the country.
11. Willard B. Cowles, Universal Jurisdiction over War Crimes, 33 CAL. L. REV. 177 (1945).
12. Declaration of German Atrocities, 1 Nov. 1943, 9 DEP'T ST. BULL. 310, 311 (1943).
13. Letter from Justice Louise Arbour to President Milosevic and other senior officials, ICTY press release JL/PIU/389-E, 26 Mar. 1999.
14. Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, arts. 8, 9, 17, 18, 19 & 20, Report of the Int'l Law Comm'n on the Work of its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. Doc. A/51/10, ¶ 50.
15. Id. art. 9.
16. Theodor Meron, Crimes under the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, in REFLECTIONS ON THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT 47, 48 (Herman A.M. von Hebel, Johan G. Lammers & Jolien Schukking eds., 1999).
17. See generally Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted 10 Dec. 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1985) (entered into force 26 June 1987) reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984), substantive changes noted in 24 I.L.M. 535 (1985).
18. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted 9 Dec. 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 (entered into force 12 Jan. 1951) (entered into force for the U.S. 23 Feb. 1989).
19. Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States (1987), ¶ 404, Reporters' Note 1.
20. See app.
21. See id.
22. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature 17 July 1998, art. 7, reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998).
23. NIGEL S. RODLEY, THE TREATMENT OF PRISONERS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW 125 (2d ed. 1999); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 240 (2d ed. 1999).
24. NIGEL S. RODLEY, THE TREATMENT OF PRISONERS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW 125 (2d ed. 1999); M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 240 (2d ed. 1999).
25. Juge d'instruction à Bruxelles, ordonnance, 6 Nov. 1998, REVUE DE DROIT PENAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 1999, 278, 288.
26. See app.
27. Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3114, 75 U.N.T.S. 31, art. 50 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956); Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3217, 75 U.N.T.S. 85, art. 51 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956); Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, art. 130 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956); Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3516, 75 U.N.T.S. 287, art. 147 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956).
28. Geneva Conv. I, art. 49, Geneva Conv. II, art. 50, Geneva Conv. III, art. 129, Geneva Conv. IV, art. 146, supra note 26.
29. Denise Plattner, The Penal Repression of Violations of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Non-international Armed Conflict, 30 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 409, 414 (1990).
30. See Thomas Graditzky, Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in Non-International Armed Conflicts, 322 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 29-56 (1998); See also Theodor Meron, International Criminalization of Internal Atrocities, 89 AM J. INT'L L. 554 (1995).
31. See Thomas Graditzky, Individual Criminal Responsibility for Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in Non-International Armed Conflicts, 322 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 29-56 (1998); See also Theodor Meron, International Criminalization of Internal Atrocities, 89 AM J. INT'L L. 554 (1995).
32. ICTR Statute, art. 4, 33 I.LM. 1598 (1994).
33. Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, Appeals Chamber of the ICTY, 2 Oct. 1995, ¶ 137, 35 I.L.M. 32 (1996). See Christa Meindersma, Violations of Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions as Violations of the Laws or Customs of War under Article 3 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 42 NETHERLANDS INT'L L. REV. 375 (1995).
34. ICC Statute, supra note 22, art. 8(2)(c) & (e).
35. UN Comm'n on Human Rights Resolution 1999/1, 6 Apr. 1999.
36. Meron, supra note 29.
37. See Yoram Dinstein, The Universality Principle and War Crimes, in THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT: INTO THE NEXT MILLENNIUM 17, 21 (M.N. Schmitt & L.C. Green eds., 1998).
38. Convention Against Torture, supra note 17.
39. Id. art. 7(2).
40. RODLEY, supra note 23, at 129-30.
41. Prosecutor v. Anton Furundzjia, ICTY, 10 Dec. 1998, ¶ 156, 38 I.L.M. 346 (1999).
42. See Appendix.
43. F.A. Mann, The Definition of Jurisdiction, 111 RECEUIL DES COURS 95 (1964).
44. Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons, signed 9 lune 1994, OAS Doc. OEA/Ser.P/AG/doc.3114/94, art. 4 (1994), reprinted in 33 I.L.M. 1529 (1994) (not in force).
45. United Nations Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance, U.N. GAOR Res. 47/133, art. 14, 18 Dec. 1992.
46. ICTY Statute, art. 9 (2), 32 I.L.M. 1192 (1993); ICTR Statute, supra note 30 art.8 (2); see Bartram S. Brown, Primacy or Complementarity: Reconciling the Jurisdiction of National Courts and International Criminal Tribunals, 23 YALE J. INT'L L. 383 (1998).
47. ICC Statute, supra note 22, art. 12(2).
48. The term active personality principle refers to the basis of jurisdiction when the persons having the nationality of that forum are alleged to have committed the crime.
49. ICC Statute, supra note 22, pmbl.
50. Id., art. 17(1).
51. The case of the S.S. Lotus (France v. Turkey), Permanent Court of International Justice, 7 Sept. 1927, Ser. A, No. 10.
52. See Conclusions of the Chairman, in NATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW 265 (Michael Bothe ed., 1990).
53. But see the order by the investigating magistrate in Brussels, supra note 24.
54. THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 12 AUGUST 1949: COMMENTARY II, at 264, n.2 (J.S. Pictet ed., 1952); similarly, Bothe, supra note 50.
55. According to one recent study, universal jurisdiction over all grave breaches defined in the Geneva Conventions (the most widely accepted ground for establishing universal jurisdiction) has so far been implemented by only 30 states. Richard van Elst, Implementing Universal Jurisdiction over Grave Breaches of the Geneva Conventions, 13 LEIDEN J. INT'L L. 815 (2000). The numbers may significantly increase, however, as states move to bring their legislation in conformity with the Statute of the ICC.
56. See Appendix.
57. War Crimes Act 1991, § 1 (Eng.). Australia has a similar law.
58. A.T. Richardson, War Crimes Act 1991, 55 MODERN L. REV. 73, 74 (1992).
59. See app.
60. See generally supra note 26.
61. See, e.g., Stefan van Heeck, Der aktuelle Fall: Die Anwendbarkeit deutschen Strafrechts auf Balkankriegsverbrechen, 13 HUMANITÄRES VÖLKERRECHT 27, 32-33 (2000).
62. Nuremberg Charter, art. 7, 88 U.N.T.S. 280.
63. ICTY Statute, supra note 44, art. 7.
64. ICTR Statute, supra note 30, art. 6.
65. ICC Statute, supra note 22, art. 27(1).
66. Furundzija Judgment, supra note 39, ¶ 140.
67. See Andrea Bianchi, Immunity Versus Human Rights: The Pinochet Case, 10 EUROPEAN J. INT'L L. 237, 276-77 (1999).
68. Loi relative à a répression des infractions graves de droit international humanitaire art. 5(3), 10 Feb. 1999, MONITEUR BELGE, 23 Mar. 1999. English trans. in 38 I.L.M. 918 (1999).
69. UK House of Lords: Regina v. Bartle and the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis and Others Ex Parte Pinochet, 24 Mar. 1999, 38 I.L.M. 581 (1999). Christine M. Chinkin, Casenote 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 703 (1999).
70. Under the UK's State Immunity Act, a serving head of state enjoys absolute immunity from prosecution. The Committee against Torture has requested the UK to amend this act to bring it into line with the Convention against Torture. U.N Doc CAT/C/SR 36 ¶ 11 (27 Nov. 1998).
71. Abandon des poursuites contre le colonel Kadhafi, LE MONDE, 13 Mar. 2001.
72. Naomi Roht-Arriaza, State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law, 78 CAL. L. REV. 451, 485 (1990); Kai Ambos, Impunity and International Criminal Law: A Case Study on Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, 18 HUM. RTS. L. J. 1, 7 (1997). Louis Joinet, in his capacity as Special Rapporteur on amnesty laws of the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, has been more ambivalent See U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/16 ¶ 51 & 62 (21 June 1985).
73. Naomi Roht-Arriaza, State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law, 78 CAL. L. REV. 451, 485 (1990); Kai Ambos, Impunity and International Criminal Law: A Case Study on Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, 18 HUM. RTS. L. J. 1, 7 (1997). Louis Joinet, in his capacity as Special Rapporteur on amnesty laws of the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, has been more ambivalent See U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/16 ¶ 51 & 62 (21 June 1985).
74. General Comment on art. 7; General Comment No. 20, U.N. GAOR, Hum. Rts. Comm., 44th Sess., U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.3.
75. U.N. Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance, supra note 43, art. 18.
76. See, e.g., ANNUAL REPORT OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 1992-1993 Nos. 28/92 & 29/92, 2 Oct. 1992, at 41 & 154; see also Robert Kogod Goldman, Amnesty Laws and International Law: A Specific Case, in IMPUNITY OF GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 209 (Int'l Comm'n Jurists eds., 1992). However, the Inter-American Commission and Court have been reluctant to declare illegal all amnesties for perpetrators of human rights abuses. See Ellen Lutz, Responses to Amnesties by the Inter-American System for the Protection of Human Rights, in THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM OF HUMAN RIGHTS 345, 368 (David Harris & Stephen Livingstone eds., 1998).
77. See, e.g., ANNUAL REPORT OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 1992-1993 Nos. 28/92 & 29/92, 2 Oct. 1992, at 41 & 154; see also Robert Kogod Goldman, Amnesty Laws and International Law: A Specific Case, in IMPUNITY OF GROSS HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 209 (Int'l Comm'n Jurists eds., 1992). However, the Inter-American Commission and Court have been reluctant to declare illegal all amnesties for perpetrators of human rights abuses. See Ellen Lutz, Responses to Amnesties by the Inter-American System for the Protection of Human Rights, in THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM OF HUMAN RIGHTS 345, 368 (David Harris & Stephen Livingstone eds., 1998).
78. On the ambiguity of the ICC Statute with regard to amnesties, see Michael P. Scharf, The Amnesty Exception to the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, 32 CORNELL INT'L L. J. 507 (1999).
79. UN Daily Press Briefing, 5-7 July 1999.
80. Michael Scharf, Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was There a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti?, 31 TEX. INT'L L. J. 1 (1996).
81. Dugard has criticized the judgment for paying insufficient attention to international law considerations. But he accepts that "state practice is too unsettled to support a rule obliging states to prosecute those alleged to have committed crimes against humanity under all circumstances and that the present state of international law does not bar the granting of amnesty in circumstances of the kind prevailing in South Africa." John Dugard, Is the Truth and Reconciliation Process Compatible with International Law? An Unanswered Question, 13 S. AFR. J. HUM. RTS. 258, 267 (1997); see also John Dugard, Dealing with Crimes of the Past: Is Amnesty Still an Option?, 12 LEIDEN J. INT'L L. 1001-15 (1999).
82. Dugard has criticized the judgment for paying insufficient attention to international law considerations. But he accepts that "state practice is too unsettled to support a rule obliging states to prosecute those alleged to have committed crimes against humanity under all circumstances and that the present state of international law does not bar the granting of amnesty in circumstances of the kind prevailing in South Africa." John Dugard, Is the Truth and Reconciliation Process Compatible with International Law? An Unanswered Question, 13 S. AFR. J. HUM. RTS. 258, 267 (1997); see also John Dugard, Dealing with Crimes of the Past: Is Amnesty Still an Option?, 12 LEIDEN J. INT'L L. 1001-15 (1999).
83. Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 Aug 1949 and Relating to the Protection ot Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, art. 6, ¶ 5, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (entered into force 7 Dec. 1978), reprinted in 16 I.L.M. 1442 (1977).
84. Letter from the ICRC, quoted in Naomi Roht-Arriaza & Lauren Gibson, The Developing Jurisprudence on Amnesty, 20 HUM. RTS.Q 843, 865 (1998).
85. With regard to torture, see the Furundzija judgment, supra note 39, ¶ 155-56.
86. A.P. v. Italy, Comm. No. 204/1986, 2 Nov. 1987, U.N. Doc. A/43/40 at 242; see generally International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, art. 14 U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976).
87. Declaration on the Principles of International Co-operation in the Detection, Arrest, Extradition and Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity. G.A. Res. 3074 (XXVIII), adopted 3 Dec. 1973, reprinted in 13 I.L.M. 230 (1974).
88. Protocol (I) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, art. 88, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 7 Dec. 1978), reprinted in 16 I.L.M. 1391 (1977); UN Convention against Torture, supra note 17, art. 9.
89. ICC Statute, supra note 22, art. 93(1); see also ICTY Statute, supra note 44, art. 29; ICTR Statute, supra note 30 art. 28.
90. UK HOME OFFICE, STEERING COMMITTEE REPORT, REVIEW OF EXTRA-TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION 25 (July 1996).
91. See app.
92. See app.
93. See Rules of Procedure and Evidence ICTY, Rules 71 & 90, available at 〈http:// www.un.org/icty/basic.html〉.
94. UK HOME OFFICE REPORT, supra note 85.
95. Although the Geneva Conventions lack a supervisory body, the International Committee of the Red Cross, through its Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, has done useful work in assisting states parties to adopt appropriate implementing legislation with regard to universal jurisdiction.
96. In only two individual cases the Committee has asked states parties why they had not initiated an investigation in accordance with the Convention's universal jurisdiction provisions. See questions posed to the Netherlands, with regard to the visit by General Pinochet there in 1994 (the matter was first raised by the Netherlands itself, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.210 ¶¶ 8 & 43) and to Colombia, with regard to the residence of General Avril (U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.239 ¶ 45). See CHRIS INGELSE, DE ROL VAN HET COMITÉ IN DE ONTWIKKELING VAN MET VN-VERDRAC TEGEN FOLTERINC 292-95 (1999), English trans. to be published as THE UN COMMITTEE AGAINST TORTURE: AN ASSESSMENT (2001).
97. In only two individual cases the Committee has asked states parties why they had not initiated an investigation in accordance with the Convention's universal jurisdiction provisions. See questions posed to the Netherlands, with regard to the visit by General Pinochet there in 1994 (the matter was first raised by the Netherlands itself, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.210 ¶¶ 8 & 43) and to Colombia, with regard to the residence of General Avril (U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.239 ¶ 45). See CHRIS INGELSE, DE ROL VAN HET COMITÉ IN DE ONTWIKKELING VAN MET VN-VERDRAC TEGEN FOLTERINC 292-95 (1999), English trans. to be published as THE UN COMMITTEE AGAINST TORTURE: AN ASSESSMENT (2001).
98. U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.360, at 5 (19 Nov. 1998).
99. INGELSE, supra note 91, at 301.
100. S.C. Res. 978 (1995), U.N. SCOR, 3504th mtg., ¶ 1 , U.N. Doc. S/RES/978 (1995).
101. Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, U.N. Doc. S/1999/957, 8 Sept. 1999.
102. But see Appendix, the proceedings initiated in Senegal against former President Habré of Chad.
103. Geneva Conv. I, art. 49, Geneva Conv. II, art. 50, Geneva Conv. III, art. 129, Geneva Conv. IV, art. 146, supra note 26; Convention against Torture, supra note 17, art. 8.
104. Cf. ICC Statute, supra note 22, art. 77; ICTY Statute, supra note 44, art. 24; ICTR Statute, supra note 30, art. 23.
105. See Gillian Triggs, Australia's War Crimes Trials: All Pity Choked, in THE LAW OF WAR CRIMES: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES 123-49 (Timothy L.H. McCormack & Gerry J. Simpson eds., 1997).
106. Nulyarimma and others v. Thompson, Federal Court of Australia, Full Court, 1 Sept. 1999, 39 I.L.M. 20 (2000).
107. See Axel Marschik, The Politics of Prosecution: European National Approaches to War Crimes, in THE LAW OF WAR CRIMES, supra note 99, at 79-81. The decision appears not to nave been published.
108. Loi relative à la répression des infractions graves aux Conventions internationales de Genève du 12 août 1949 et aux Protocoles I et II du 8 juin 1977, additionnels à ces Conventions, 16 June 1993, MONITEUR BELGE, 5 Aug. 1993.
109. A. Andries, E. David, & C. van den Wijngaert, Commentaire de la loi du 16 juin 1993 relative à la répression des infractions graves aux droit international humanitaire, REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRININOLOGIE 1114, 1173 (1994).
110. Loi relative à la répression des violations graves de droit international humanitaire, 10 Feb. 1999, MONITEUR BELGE, 23 Mar. 1999, (English translation in) 38 I.L.M. 918 (1999). Damien Vandermeersch, a juge d'instruction based in Brussels had determined several months earlier, in proceedings against general Pinochet, that crimes against humanity could be investigated in Belgium, in accordance with the principle of universal jurisdiction, on the basis of customary international law. Juge d'instruction à Bruxelles, 6 Nov. 1998, REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 278-300 (1999); Luc Reydams, Casenote 93 AM. J.INT'L L. 700 (1999).
111. Loi relative à la répression des violations graves de droit international humanitaire, 10 Feb. 1999, MONITEUR BELGE, 23 Mar. 1999, (English translation in) 38 I.L.M. 918 (1999). Damien Vandermeersch, a juge d'instruction based in Brussels had determined several months earlier, in proceedings against general Pinochet, that crimes against humanity could be investigated in Belgium, in accordance with the principle of universal jurisdiction, on the basis of customary international law. Juge d'instruction à Bruxelles, 6 Nov. 1998, REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 278-300 (1999); Luc Reydams, Casenote 93 AM. J.INT'L L. 700 (1999).
112. Luc Reydams, Universal Jurisdiction over Atrocities in Rwanda: Theory and Practice, 4 EUR. J. CRIM. L. CRIM. JUSTICE 18, 37 (1996).
113. Damien Vandermeersch, La répression en droit belge des crimes de droit international, 68 INT'L REV. PEN. L. 1093, 1121-22 (1997).
114. A Bruxelles, les "quatre du Rwanda" sont tous déclarés coupables, LE MONDE, 8 June 2001.
115. Prosecution v. Refik Saric, Third Chamber of the Eastern Division of the Danish High Court, 25 Nov. 1994. See Rafaelle Maison, Les premiers cas d'application des dispositions pénales des Conventions de Genève par les jurisdictions internes, 6 EUR. J. INT'L L. 260 (1995).
116. Prosecution v. Refik Saric, Supreme Court of Denmark, 15 Aug. 1995, 1995 UGESKRIFT FOR RETSVAESEN at 838.
117. See Marianne Holdgaard Bukh, Prosecution Before Danish Courts of Foreigners Suspected of Serious Violations of Human Rights or Humanitarian Law, 6 EUR. REV. PUB. L. 339, 341 (1994).
118. Erik Merlung, National Implementation: The Universal Jurisdiction: The Saric Case, in THE PUNISHMENT OF WAR CRIMES: INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PERSPECTIVE, (Report of a conference organized by the Belgian Red Cross and the Belgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs) 12, 13 (9 Oct. 1996).
119. In re Wenceslas Munyeshyaka, Cour de Cassation, Paris, 6 Jan. 1998, 102 REVUE GENÉRALE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC 825 (1998); Brigitte Stern, Casenote 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 525 (1999); see also Brigitte Stern, La compétence universelle en France: le cas des crimes commis en ex-Yougoslavie et au Rwanda, 40 GERMAN Y. B. INT'L L. 280 (1997).
120. In re Wenceslas Munyeshyaka, Cour de Cassation, Paris, 6 Jan. 1998, 102 REVUE GENÉRALE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC 825 (1998); Brigitte Stern, Casenote 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 525 (1999); see also Brigitte Stern, La compétence universelle en France: le cas des crimes commis en ex-Yougoslavie et au Rwanda, 40 GERMAN Y. B. INT'L L. 280 (1997).
121. In re Wenceslas Munyeshyaka, Cour de Cassation, Paris, 6 Jan. 1998, 102 REVUE GENÉRALE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC 825 (1998); Brigitte Stern, Casenote 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 525 (1999); see also Brigitte Stern, La compétence universelle en France: le cas des crimes commis en ex-Yougoslavie et au Rwanda, 40 GERMAN Y. B. INT'L L. 280 (1997).
122. Law 96-432 of 22 May 1996.
123. Fédération internationale des Ligues des droits de l'homme, Press Release, 5 July 1999.
124. Mauritania: Torture-charge Mauritanian Home from France, Reuters, 5 Apr. 2000.
125. See Herwig Roggeman, Strafvervolgung von Balkankriegsverbrechen aufgrund des Weltrechtsprinzips - ein Ausweg?," 47 NEUE JURISTISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 1436 (1994); Dietrich Oehler, Verfolgung von Völkermord im Ausland, 10 NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR STRAFRECHT 485 (1994); Dorothée Füth, Die Verfolgung von Völkermord durch deutsche Gerichte aufgrund des Weltrechtspflegeprinzips, 10 HUMANITÄRES VÖLKERRECHT 38 (1997).
126. See Herwig Roggeman, Strafvervolgung von Balkankriegsverbrechen aufgrund des Weltrechtsprinzips - ein Ausweg?," 47 NEUE JURISTISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 1436 (1994); Dietrich Oehler, Verfolgung von Völkermord im Ausland, 10 NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR STRAFRECHT 485 (1994); Dorothée Füth, Die Verfolgung von Völkermord durch deutsche Gerichte aufgrund des Weltrechtspflegeprinzips, 10 HUMANITÄRES VÖLKERRECHT 38 (1997).
127. See Herwig Roggeman, Strafvervolgung von Balkankriegsverbrechen aufgrund des Weltrechtsprinzips - ein Ausweg?," 47 NEUE JURISTISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 1436 (1994); Dietrich Oehler, Verfolgung von Völkermord im Ausland, 10 NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR STRAFRECHT 485 (1994); Dorothée Füth, Die Verfolgung von Völkermord durch deutsche Gerichte aufgrund des Weltrechtspflegeprinzips, 10 HUMANITÄRES VÖLKERRECHT 38 (1997).
128. Prosecution v. Novislav Djajic, Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht, 23 May 1997, 19 NEUE JURISTISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 392 (1998); J.M. Safferling, Casenote, 92 AM.J. INT'L L. 528 (1998).
129. Prosecution v. Nikola Jorgic, Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, 26 Sept. 1997.
130. Prosecution v. Nikola Jorgic, Bundesgerichshof, 30 Apr. 1999, NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR STRAFRECHT 1999 at 396, (casenote by kai Ambos).
131. Human Rights Watch, Mexico's Decision to Extradite Accused Argentine Torturer Hailed, News Release, 3 Feb. 2001.
132. Prosecution v. Darko Knesevic, Supreme Court of the Netherlands, 11 Nov. 1997, NEDERLANDSE JURISPRUDENTIE 1998, 463. English trans. in 1 Y.B. INT'L HUM. L. 601 (1998).
133. See B.V.A. Röling, The Law and the National Jurisdiction, RECUEIL DES COURS 1960-II, 359; see also the illuminating conversation between Cassese and Röling in B.V.A. RÖLINC & ANTONIO CASSESE, THE TOKYO TRIAL AND BEYOND 95-98 (1993).
134. See B.V.A. Röling, The Law and the National Jurisdiction, RECUEIL DES COURS 1960-II, 359; see also the illuminating conversation between Cassese and Röling in B.V.A. RÖLINC & ANTONIO CASSESE, THE TOKYO TRIAL AND BEYOND 95-98 (1993).
135. In re: Bouterse, Amsterdam District Court, 20 Nov. 2000, available at 〈http:// www.rechtspraak.nl.html〉.
136. Human Rights Watch, News Release, 4 July 2000.
137. Guengueng & Others v. Habré, Cour de cassation, 20 Mar. 2001, available at 〈http:// www.hrw.org/french/themes/habre-cour_de_cass.html〉.
138. Spanish National Court, Criminal Division, Case 19/97, 4 Nov. 1998 & Case 1/98, 5 Nov. 1998. María del Carmen Marquez Carrasco & Joaquín Alcaide Fernández, Casenote, 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 690, 691 (1999).
139. Prosecution v. Goran Grabez, Tribunal militaire de division 1, Lausanne, 18 Apr. 1997; Andreas R. Ziegler, Casenote, 92 AM. J. INT'L L. 78 (1998).
140. En la cause Fulgence Niyonteze, Tribunal militaire de division 2, Lausanne, 30 Apr. 1999.
141. En la cause Fulgence Niyonteze, Tribunal militaire d'appel 1a, Geneva, 26 May 2000; Tribunal militaire de cassation, Yverdon-les-Bains, 27 Apr. 2001.
142. Ken Symon, "Torture Centre" Doctor Charged, SUNDAY TIMES (LONDON), 21 Sept. 1997, at 12.
143. Scottish Crown Office Drops Torture Prosecution against Sudanese Doctor, REDRESS, Press Release, 27 May 1999 〈at http://www.redress.org.html〉.
144. For an overview, see Beth Stephens, Expanding Remedies for Human Rights Abuses: Civil Litigation in Domestic Courts, 40 GERMAN Y. B. INT'L L. 117 (1997).
145. US Report to the UN Committee against Torture, 15 Oct. 1999, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/28/ Add.5, ¶ 189 (9 Feb. 2000).