"Almost pathetic ... But also very glorious": The consumer spectacle of the diamond jubilee

Histoire Sociale

Volumn 29, Issue 58, 1996, Pages 330-356

  Smith, Tori ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 0041355308     PISSN: 00182257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (125)

1. Accounts of the day do not describe this activity, but it is suggested by the great number of programmes and souvenirs produced for the diamond jubilee, by the ubiquity of street sellers in Victorian London, and by the comment in the Times that the funeral of the queen in 1901 was "perhaps ... the first time in London the voice of a hawker of mementos and programmes was not heard". Times, February 4, 1901, p. 7.
2. India Office Records, Mss. C. 125/2, letter from Secretary of State for India to Viceroy, May 14, 1897.
3. Graphic, June 26, 1897, p. 795.
4. Telegraph, March 26, 1897, p. 7.
5. Telegraph, June 10, 1897, p. 10.
6. Telegraph, June 15, 1897, p. 11.
7. Daily Mail, June 22, 1897, p. 4.
8. Daily Mail, June 17, 1897, p. 4.
9. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c.1820-1977" in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 101-164. See also Elizabeth Hammerton and David Cannadine, "Conflict and Consensus on a Ceremonial Occasion. The Diamond Jubilee in Cambridge in 1897", Historical Journal, vol. 24, no. 1 (1981), pp. 111-146; William Kuhn, "Ceremony and Politics: The Management of British Royal Ceremonial, 1861-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); Jeffrey Lant, Insubstantial Pageant: Ceremony and Confusion at Queen Victoria's Court (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979). For a critique of Cannadine, see Walter Arnstein, "Queen Victoria Opens Parliament: The Disinvention of Tradition", Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 151 (1990), pp. 178-194.
10. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c.1820-1977" in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 101-164. See also Elizabeth Hammerton and David Cannadine, "Conflict and Consensus on a Ceremonial Occasion. The Diamond Jubilee in Cambridge in 1897", Historical Journal, vol. 24, no. 1 (1981), pp. 111-146; William Kuhn, "Ceremony and Politics: The Management of British Royal Ceremonial, 1861-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); Jeffrey Lant, Insubstantial Pageant: Ceremony and Confusion at Queen Victoria's Court (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979). For a critique of Cannadine, see Walter Arnstein, "Queen Victoria Opens Parliament: The Disinvention of Tradition", Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 151 (1990), pp. 178-194.
11. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c.1820-1977" in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 101-164. See also Elizabeth Hammerton and David Cannadine, "Conflict and Consensus on a Ceremonial Occasion. The Diamond Jubilee in Cambridge in 1897", Historical Journal, vol. 24, no. 1 (1981), pp. 111-146; William Kuhn, "Ceremony and Politics: The Management of British Royal Ceremonial, 1861-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); Jeffrey Lant, Insubstantial Pageant: Ceremony and Confusion at Queen Victoria's Court (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979). For a critique of Cannadine, see Walter Arnstein, "Queen Victoria Opens Parliament: The Disinvention of Tradition", Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 151 (1990), pp. 178-194.
12. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c.1820-1977" in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 101-164. See also Elizabeth Hammerton and David Cannadine, "Conflict and Consensus on a Ceremonial Occasion. The Diamond Jubilee in Cambridge in 1897", Historical Journal, vol. 24, no. 1 (1981), pp. 111-146; William Kuhn, "Ceremony and Politics: The Management of British Royal Ceremonial, 1861-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); Jeffrey Lant, Insubstantial Pageant: Ceremony and Confusion at Queen Victoria's Court (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979). For a critique of Cannadine, see Walter Arnstein, "Queen Victoria Opens Parliament: The Disinvention of Tradition", Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 151 (1990), pp. 178-194.
13. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c.1820-1977" in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 101-164. See also Elizabeth Hammerton and David Cannadine, "Conflict and Consensus on a Ceremonial Occasion. The Diamond Jubilee in Cambridge in 1897", Historical Journal, vol. 24, no. 1 (1981), pp. 111-146; William Kuhn, "Ceremony and Politics: The Management of British Royal Ceremonial, 1861-1911" (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1990); Jeffrey Lant, Insubstantial Pageant: Ceremony and Confusion at Queen Victoria's Court (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979). For a critique of Cannadine, see Walter Arnstein, "Queen Victoria Opens Parliament: The Disinvention of Tradition", Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 151 (1990), pp. 178-194.
14. Cannadine does include commercial exploitation and the role of the press as context for royal rituals. He also uses the degree of commercial exploitation as evidence of the level of the popularity of the crown. Similarly, John MacAloon, in "Olympic Games and the Theory of Spectacle in Modern Societies" in MacAloon, ed., Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1984), cites commercial exploitation as indicative of the success of the modern Olympics as a spectacle. Both authors, however, describe commercial activity as tangential, rather than as integral, to the spectacle.
15. I am not contending that the diamond jubilee was the first such event; the 1887 jubilee shared many of the same characteristics, although to a lesser degree, as did the 1896 coronation of the Czar in Russia.
16. For examples of earlier commercial involvement, see Paul Fritz, "The Trade in Death: Royal Funerals in England, 1685-1830", Eighteenth Century Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1982), pp. 291-316. Susan Davis notes in her study of parades in Philadelphia that there was a "growing partnership of commerce and government in the production of festivity and spectacle" in the second half of the nineteenth century. Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), p. 170.
17. For examples of earlier commercial involvement, see Paul Fritz, "The Trade in Death: Royal Funerals in England, 1685-1830", Eighteenth Century Studies, vol. 15, no. 2 (1982), pp. 291-316. Susan Davis notes in her study of parades in Philadelphia that there was a "growing partnership of commerce and government in the production of festivity and spectacle" in the second half of the nineteenth century. Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), p. 170.
18. Critics and historians have often paired spectacle with passivity on the part of the audience. Mary Ryan, for example, characterizes nineteenth-century American political spectacle as involving passive spectatorship rather than active participation. This description assumes that viewing is necessarily a passive activity and obscures some of the new ways in which people participated as consumers. Mary Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballonts, 1825-1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 42. See also MacAloon, "Olympic Games"; Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle (New York: Zone Books, 1994).
19. Critics and historians have often paired spectacle with passivity on the part of the audience. Mary Ryan, for example, characterizes nineteenth-century American political spectacle as involving passive spectatorship rather than active participation. This description assumes that viewing is necessarily a passive activity and obscures some of the new ways in which people participated as consumers. Mary Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballonts, 1825-1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 42. See also MacAloon, "Olympic Games"; Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle (New York: Zone Books, 1994).
20. The Daily Mail claimed that thousands of spectators would take "snap-shots" of the procession. Daily Mail, June 18, 1897, p. 5.
21. For a closer examination of the official planning, see Lant, Insubstantial Pageant, pp. 215-246; Tori Smith, "Constructing Victoria: The Representation of Queen Victoria in England, India, and Canada, 1897-1914" (Ph.D. dissertation-in-progress, Rutgers University).
22. For a closer examination of the official planning, see Lant, Insubstantial Pageant, pp. 215-246; Tori Smith, "Constructing Victoria: The Representation of Queen Victoria in England, India, and Canada, 1897-1914" (Ph.D. dissertation-in-progress, Rutgers University).
23. The decision to celebrate the queen's reign was also influenced by the success of the recent festivities in Moscow marking the coronation of the Czar. Eric Hobsbawm argues that jubilees and ceremonial anniversaries were particularly common in the period from 1870 to 1914, in "Mass Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914" in Hobsbawm and Ranger, eds., Invention of Tradition, pp. 263-307. Hobsbawm, however, overstates the degree to which public anniversaries were a new "invention". Linda Colley discusses at length the 1809 jubilee of George III and the changes it ushered in which shaped public celebrations for the rest of the century. Linda Colley, Britons (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 195-236.
24. The decision to celebrate the queen's reign was also influenced by the success of the recent festivities in Moscow marking the coronation of the Czar. Eric Hobsbawm argues that jubilees and ceremonial anniversaries were particularly common in the period from 1870 to 1914, in "Mass Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914" in Hobsbawm and Ranger, eds., Invention of Tradition, pp. 263-307. Hobsbawm, however, overstates the degree to which public anniversaries were a new "invention". Linda Colley discusses at length the 1809 jubilee of George III and the changes it ushered in which shaped public celebrations for the rest of the century. Linda Colley, Britons (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 195-236.
25. In fact, neither the 1887 jubilee nor the diamond jubilee were celebrated on the actual anniversary of the queen's accession since Victoria felt that celebrations would be disrespectful on the day of her uncle King William's death.
26. Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), HO 45 b21471A/18, 1a, letter from Queen's Private Secretary to Home Office, January 27, 1897.
27. Michael Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre 1850-1910 (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), p. 4.
28. Jubilee shows included The Court Ball; or God Save the Queen at The South London Music Hall and Under One Flag at the Empire in Hackney. The halls which produced jubilee shows included some which catered to local, working-class audiences and others which attracted more diverse and affluent crowds. For a discussion of the composition of music hall audiences, see Penny Summerfield, "Patriotism and Empire: Music Hall Entertainment, 1870-1914" in John M. MacKenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), pp. 24-25.
29. Daily Telegraph, May 26, 1897, p. 8.
30. Reynolds News, February 14, 1897, p. 5.
31. Lloyds Weekly Newspaper, June 29, 1897.
32. Peter Bailey has argued that the Victorian music hall was a "prototype of the modern entertainment industry", thoroughly commercialized and able to secure a mass paying audience. Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest For Control, 1830-1885 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), p. 150.
33. See Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre; Summerfield, "Patriotism and Empire"; Scott Hughes Myerly, "'The Eye Must Entrap the Mind': Army Spectacle and Paradigm in Nineteenth Century Britain", Journal of Social History, vol, 26, no, 1 (Fall 1992), pp. 105-131.
34. See Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre; Summerfield, "Patriotism and Empire"; Scott Hughes Myerly, "'The Eye Must Entrap the Mind': Army Spectacle and Paradigm in Nineteenth Century Britain", Journal of Social History, vol, 26, no, 1 (Fall 1992), pp. 105-131.
35. See Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre; Summerfield, "Patriotism and Empire"; Scott Hughes Myerly, "'The Eye Must Entrap the Mind': Army Spectacle and Paradigm in Nineteenth Century Britain", Journal of Social History, vol, 26, no, 1 (Fall 1992), pp. 105-131.
36. PRO, CO 323/421, Memorandum, January 18, 1897; Illustrated London News, May 6, 1896, Supplement.
37. Telegraph, March 27, 1897, p. 3.
38. Telegraph, June 19, 1897, p. 8.
39. Telegraph, March 26, 1897, p. 7.
40. Lady, June 24, 1897, p. 927.
41. See James McKay, Commemorative Pottery and Porcelain (London: Garnstone Press, 1971 ); John and Jennifer May, Commemorative Pottery 1780-1900 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1972); M. H. Davey and D. J. Mannion, Fifty Years of Commemorative China, 1887-1937 (Hemel Hempstead, U.K.: Dayman, 1988).
42. See James McKay, Commemorative Pottery and Porcelain (London: Garnstone Press, 1971 ); John and Jennifer May, Commemorative Pottery 1780-1900 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1972); M. H. Davey and D. J. Mannion, Fifty Years of Commemorative China, 1887-1937 (Hemel Hempstead, U.K.: Dayman, 1988).
43. See James McKay, Commemorative Pottery and Porcelain (London: Garnstone Press, 1971 ); John and Jennifer May, Commemorative Pottery 1780-1900 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1972); M. H. Davey and D. J. Mannion, Fifty Years of Commemorative China, 1887-1937 (Hemel Hempstead, U.K.: Dayman, 1988).
44. Thomas Richards, "In the Year of the Jubilee" in The Commodity Culture of Victorian and Edwardian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), pp. 73-118.
45. Davey and Mannion, Fifty Years, p. 16.
46. May and May, Commemorative Pottery, p. 74.
47. PRO, LC 2/37, Spinks and Sons Medallists, Catalogue of Sexagenary Medals (London, 1897).
48. J. R. S. Whiting, Commemorative Medals: A Medallic History of Britain from Tudor Times to the Present Day (Newton Abbot, U.K.: David and Charles, 1972), p. 174. See also Christopher Eimer, British Commemorative Medals and Their Values (London: Seaby, 1987).
49. J. R. S. Whiting, Commemorative Medals: A Medallic History of Britain from Tudor Times to the Present Day (Newton Abbot, U.K.: David and Charles, 1972), p. 174. See also Christopher Eimer, British Commemorative Medals and Their Values (London: Seaby, 1987).
50. PRO, COPY 1/133, no. 90.
51. Graphic, May 26, 1897, pp. 679, 711.
52. May and May, Commemorative Pottery, p. 80.
53. Davey and Mannion, Fifty Years, p. 19, plate 58.
54. PRO, COPY 1/134, no, 163.
55. British Library, "All About The Diamond Jubilee" in the Queen Victoria Collection of Pamphlets, etc. Referring to the Diamond Jubilee, p. 57.
56. For example, the Dalu-Kola Tea Company produced a gold tin embossed with Victoria's profile (in author's possession). Richards distinguishes these items from souvenirs, but the lines between the two are blurry. Certainly from the evidence of what is available in flea markets and antique stores, jubilee containers were saved as regularly as were independent souvenirs.
57. Graphic, June 1, 1897, p. iv.
58. Graphic, May 29, 1897, p. 683.
59. British Library, Queen Victoria Collection of Pamphlets.
60. Illustrated London News, June 12, 1897, p. 834.
61. Times, June 9, 1897, p. 6; May 31, 1897, p. 8.
62. Times, June 9, 1897, p. 6; May 31, 1897, p. 8.
63. On the souvenir, see Susan Stewart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), pp. 132-145. Thomas Richards also discusses souvenirs in relation to the jubilee of 1887 in The Commodity Culture, pp. 93-95.
64. On the souvenir, see Susan Stewart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), pp. 132-145. Thomas Richards also discusses souvenirs in relation to the jubilee of 1887 in The Commodity Culture, pp. 93-95.
65. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989). Thomas Richards suggests in reference to the first jubilee that "Queen Victoria was the great-grandmother not only of miniature Washington monuments and piggy banks of the Statue of Liberty but of ... honorific portraits of the eternal Elvis," Richards, The Commodity Culture, p. 88.
66. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989). Thomas Richards suggests in reference to the first jubilee that "Queen Victoria was the great-grandmother not only of miniature Washington monuments and piggy banks of the Statue of Liberty but of ... honorific portraits of the eternal Elvis," Richards, The Commodity Culture, p. 88.
67. Dean MacCannell makes this point about tourist sites in his study of leisure and tourism, The Tourist: A New Theory of Leisure and Class (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), pp. 43-48.
68. Richards, The Commodity Culture, p. 94.
69. Susan Stewart suggests that a souvenir authenticates the experience of the spectator and that "the souvenir moves history into private time" in On Longing, pp. 134-138.
70. See Richards, The Commodity Culture; T. R. Nevett, Advertising in Britain (London: Heinemann - Advertising History Trust, 1982); Lori Ann Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Robert Opie, Rule Britannia (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking, 1985); Diana and Geoffrey Hindley, Advertising in Victorian England, 1837-1901 (London: Wayland, 1972).
71. See Richards, The Commodity Culture; T. R. Nevett, Advertising in Britain (London: Heinemann -Advertising History Trust, 1982); Lori Ann Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Robert Opie, Rule Britannia (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking, 1985); Diana and Geoffrey Hindley, Advertising in Victorian England, 1837-1901 (London: Wayland, 1972).
72. See Richards, The Commodity Culture; T. R. Nevett, Advertising in Britain (London: Heinemann - Advertising History Trust, 1982); Lori Ann Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Robert Opie, Rule Britannia (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking, 1985); Diana and Geoffrey Hindley, Advertising in Victorian England, 1837-1901 (London: Wayland, 1972).
73. See Richards, The Commodity Culture; T. R. Nevett, Advertising in Britain (London: Heinemann - Advertising History Trust, 1982); Lori Ann Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Robert Opie, Rule Britannia (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking, 1985); Diana and Geoffrey Hindley, Advertising in Victorian England, 1837-1901 (London: Wayland, 1972).
74. See Richards, The Commodity Culture; T. R. Nevett, Advertising in Britain (London: Heinemann - Advertising History Trust, 1982); Lori Ann Loeb, Consuming Angels: Advertising and Victorian Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Robert Opie, Rule Britannia (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Viking, 1985); Diana and Geoffrey Hindley, Advertising in Victorian England, 1837-1901 (London: Wayland, 1972).
75. Richards, The Commodity Culture, chap. 2. Richards argues that in 1887 the advertisers began using an image of Victoria as "consumer queen". However, this was only one among many images of the queen, and it had appeared prior to 1887. Lori Loeb briefly discusses Victoria in advertisements in Consuming Angels, pp. 85-86.
76. Richards, The Commodity Culture, chap. 2. Richards argues that in 1887 the advertisers began using an image of Victoria as "consumer queen". However, this was only one among many images of the queen, and it had appeared prior to 1887. Lori Loeb briefly discusses Victoria in advertisements in Consuming Angels, pp. 85-86.
77. St. James Budget Diamond Jubilee Number, p. 3.
78. Quoted in Nevitt, Advertising in Britain, pp. 114-115.
79. Illustrated London News, June 12, 1897, p. 832.
80. Robert Roberts describes the place of advertisements in working-class youths' lives: "one soaked in information of every kind from posters and advertisements." Roberts, The Classic Slum (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1971), p. 134.
81. Reynolds News, May 23 and June 12, 20, 22, and 23, 1897.
82. Alfred Harmsworth, "The Diamond Jubilee Celebrations" in Herbert Maxwell, Sixty Years A Queen (London: Fyre and Spottiswoode, 1897), pp. 191-239, p. 238.
83. Illustrated London News, June 9, 1897, p. 854.
84. "Diamond Jubilettes" ran in the Daily Mail. The Times also ran a regular jubilee column beginning in May.
85. Times, June 23, 1897, p. 9.
86. Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, June 20, 1897, p. 5.
87. Illustrated London News: Her Majesty's Glorious Diamond Jubilee, plates 9, 10, 11,
88. Daily Mail, June 23, 1897, p. 7.
89. In her examination of the opening of Selfridges in 1909, Erika Rappaport notes the important role journalists played in creating interest in the store and in shaping ideas about consumer culture in general. Rappaport, " 'A New Era Of Shopping': The Promotion of Women's Pleasure in London's West End, 1909-1914" in Leo Charney and Vanessa R. Schwanz, eds., Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 130-155.
90. After publishing letters and editorials critical of the government's treatment of visiting troops, the paper claimed credit when arrangements were changed. Daily Mail, June 17, 1897, p. 5.
91. The scheme was first mentioned in the Telegraph on March 29, 1897.
92. PRO, Home Office Minute, B21471 A18.
93. PRO, LC 2/137, letter from William Deverick to Lord Chamberlain, May 1, 1897. Deverick and other publishers wrote to the Lord Chamberlain anxious to get the details of the celebrations.
94. British Library, Queen Victoria Collection of Pamphlets.
95. Richards discusses the "myth of the achieved society" as a key part of commodity culture in The Commodity Culture, p. 66. See also Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance (New York: Basic Books, 1994).
96. Richards discusses the "myth of the achieved society" as a key part of commodity culture in The Commodity Culture, p. 66. See also Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance (New York: Basic Books, 1994).
97. PRO, CO 323/421, Colonial Office Memorandum, January 14, 1897.
98. For a discussion of the representation of the colonial troops, see Smith, "Constructing Victoria".
99. John Mackenzie pioneered the study of imperial products and advertisements; he examines this material, however, within a narrow framework of propaganda. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). See also Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture; Richards. "Selling Darkest Africa" in The Commodity Culture, pp. 119-167; Anne McClintock. "Sot't-Soaping Empire: Commodity Racism and Imperial Advertising" in Imperial Leather (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 132-180.
100. John Mackenzie pioneered the study of imperial products and advertisements; he examines this material, however, within a narrow framework of propaganda. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). See also Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture; Richards. "Selling Darkest Africa" in The Commodity Culture, pp. 119-167; Anne McClintock. "Sot't-Soaping Empire: Commodity Racism and Imperial Advertising" in Imperial Leather (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 132-180.
101. John Mackenzie pioneered the study of imperial products and advertisements; he examines this material, however, within a narrow framework of propaganda. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). See also Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture; Richards. "Selling Darkest Africa" in The Commodity Culture, pp. 119-167; Anne McClintock. "Sot't-Soaping Empire: Commodity Racism and Imperial Advertising" in Imperial Leather (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 132-180.
102. John Mackenzie pioneered the study of imperial products and advertisements; he examines this material, however, within a narrow framework of propaganda. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). See also Mackenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture; Richards. "Selling Darkest Africa" in The Commodity Culture, pp. 119-167; Anne McClintock. "Sot't-Soaping Empire: Commodity Racism and Imperial Advertising" in Imperial Leather (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 132-180.
103. Stephen Heathorn, " 'Let Us Remember That We, Too, Are British': Constructions of Citizenship and National Identity in English Reading Books, 1880-1914", Victorian Studies, vol. 38, no. 3 (Spring 1995), pp. 395-428.
104. McClintock notes that "by the end of the century, a stream of imperial bric-a-brac had invaded Victorian homes" in "Soft Soaping Empire", p. 219. Richards argues that "these contrivances removed Umpire from the domain of political struggle hy moving it into the home ... where it became an unthreatening decorative fixture." Richards, "Selling Darkest Africa", p. 134.
105. McClintock notes that "by the end of the century, a stream of imperial bric-a-brac had invaded Victorian homes" in "Soft Soaping Empire", p. 219. Richards argues that "these contrivances removed Umpire from the domain of political struggle hy moving it into the home ... where it became an unthreatening decorative fixture." Richards, "Selling Darkest Africa", p. 134.
106. Graphic, June 26, 1897, p. 782.
107. Daily Graphic, June 30, 1897, p. 18. For examples of other ads using similar images. see Opie. Rule Britannia, p. 15.
108. Daily Graphic, June 30, 1897, p. 18. For examples of other ads using similar images. see Opie. Rule Britannia, p. 15.
109. Reynold News. February 28, 1897, p. 5. Although this image was depicted on the stage, in the press, and in advertisements, I have not found a similar image on manufactured souvenirs. This suggests that the imperial theme was only one among many celebrated by the jubilee. It also may reflect the fact that in the early stages of planning, when manufacturers went into production, the emphasis on the empire had not yet emerged.
110. See Smith, "Constructing Victoria": Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University, 1996); Dorothy Thompson, Queen Victoria: Gender and Power (London: Virago, 1990).
111. See Smith, "Constructing Victoria": Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University, 1996); Dorothy Thompson, Queen Victoria: Gender and Power (London: Virago, 1990).
112. See Smith, "Constructing Victoria": Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University, 1996); Dorothy Thompson, Queen Victoria: Gender and Power (London: Virago, 1990).
113. Cosmo Monkhouse. "To Our Sovereign Lady Queen Victoria", Illustrated London News. June 26, 1897, p. 874.
114. Quoted in Harmsworth, "The Diamond Jubilee Celebrations", p. 208.
115. L. A. Law, Victoria the Great and Good: An Essay on the Diamond Jubilee (London: Elliot Stock. 1897), pp. 5-6.
116. Peter Brooks writes that in melodrama "good and evil are highly personalized" and inhabit people who, like the imagined Victoria, "have no psychological complexity but are strongly characterized". Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), p. 16. Elaine Hadley discusses melodramatic rhetoric in Victoria's reign in Melodramatic Tactics: Theatricalized Dissent in the English Marketplace, 1800-1880 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), especially pp. 171-179.
117. Peter Brooks writes that in melodrama "good and evil are highly personalized" and inhabit people who, like the imagined Victoria, "have no psychological complexity but are strongly characterized". Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), p. 16. Elaine Hadley discusses melodramatic rhetoric in Victoria's reign in Melodramatic Tactics: Theatricalized Dissent in the English Marketplace, 1800-1880 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), especially pp. 171-179.
118. See Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
119. Brooks, Melodramatic Imagination, pp. 25-26.
120. Vanity fair, June 24, 1897, p. 462.
121. Peter Bailey argues that the increased commercialization of the music halls was accompanied by the growth of the star system. The introduction of set show schedules and a formal stage removed the performer further from the audience, while producers began to promote their popular performers as characters both off and on stage. Bailey, Leisure, pp. 151-152.
122. "Marguerite on the Jubilee", Penny Illustrated Paper. June 26, 1897, p. 420.
123. Times, June 23, 1897, p. 9.
124. Telegraph, June 19, p. 8.
125. The jubilee was criticized by radicals and republicans, but its most noted critic was Rudyard Kipling, whose "Recessional" warned against forgetting the work of empire amidst the celebration.