Public workers: Labor and the Boston police strike of 1919

Labor History

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 7-27

  Slater, Joseph ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0041104752     PISSN: 0023656X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00236649712331387004     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings (1994), 249; Richard Freeman and Casey Ichniowski, When Public Sector Workers Unionize (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 375; Joe Klein, "Whither Liberalism?" Newsweek, Nov. 21, 1994, 56, (government unions "are the bureaucracy"); Michael Leibig and Wendy Kahn, Public Employee Organizing and the Law (Washington, DC: BNA, 1987) (state laws).
2. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings (1994), 249; Richard Freeman and Casey Ichniowski, When Public Sector Workers Unionize (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 375; Joe Klein, "Whither Liberalism?" Newsweek, Nov. 21, 1994, 56, (government unions "are the bureaucracy"); Michael Leibig and Wendy Kahn, Public Employee Organizing and the Law (Washington, DC: BNA, 1987) (state laws).
3. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings (1994), 249; Richard Freeman and Casey Ichniowski, When Public Sector Workers Unionize (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 375; Joe Klein, "Whither Liberalism?" Newsweek, Nov. 21, 1994, 56, (government unions "are the bureaucracy"); Michael Leibig and Wendy Kahn, Public Employee Organizing and the Law (Washington, DC: BNA, 1987) (state laws).
4. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings (1994), 249; Richard Freeman and Casey Ichniowski, When Public Sector Workers Unionize (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 375; Joe Klein, "Whither Liberalism?" Newsweek, Nov. 21, 1994, 56, (government unions "are the bureaucracy"); Michael Leibig and Wendy Kahn, Public Employee Organizing and the Law (Washington, DC: BNA, 1987) (state laws).
5. Francis Russell, A City in Terror: 1919, the Boston Police Strike (NY: Viking, 1975); Thomas Reppetto, The Blue Parade (NY: The Free Press, 1978), 107-17; Jonathan White, A Triumph of Bureaucracy: The Boston Police Strike and the Ideological Origins of the American Police Structure (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1982); Frederick Koss, The Boston Police Strike of 1919 (unpublished PhD diss., Boston Univ., 1966).
6. Francis Russell, A City in Terror: 1919, the Boston Police Strike (NY: Viking, 1975); Thomas Reppetto, The Blue Parade (NY: The Free Press, 1978), 107-17; Jonathan White, A Triumph of Bureaucracy: The Boston Police Strike and the Ideological Origins of the American Police Structure (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1982); Frederick Koss, The Boston Police Strike of 1919 (unpublished PhD diss., Boston Univ., 1966).
7. Francis Russell, A City in Terror: 1919, the Boston Police Strike (NY: Viking, 1975); Thomas Reppetto, The Blue Parade (NY: The Free Press, 1978), 107-17; Jonathan White, A Triumph of Bureaucracy: The Boston Police Strike and the Ideological Origins of the American Police Structure (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1982); Frederick Koss, The Boston Police Strike of 1919 (unpublished PhD diss., Boston Univ., 1966).
8. Francis Russell, A City in Terror: 1919, the Boston Police Strike (NY: Viking, 1975); Thomas Reppetto, The Blue Parade (NY: The Free Press, 1978), 107-17; Jonathan White, A Triumph of Bureaucracy: The Boston Police Strike and the Ideological Origins of the American Police Structure (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1982); Frederick Koss, The Boston Police Strike of 1919 (unpublished PhD diss., Boston Univ., 1966).
9. American Federationist Jan. 1918, 56; Sterling Spero, Government as Employer (NY, Remsen Press, 1948) 17, 129. The Chicago Teachers Federation joined the AFL as a local in 1902. Commission on Educational Reconstruction, Organizing the Teaching Profession: The Story of the American Federation of Teachers (New York, 1955), 9.
10. American Federationist Jan. 1918, 56; Sterling Spero, Government as Employer (NY, Remsen Press, 1948) 17, 129. The Chicago Teachers Federation joined the AFL as a local in 1902. Commission on Educational Reconstruction, Organizing the Teaching Profession: The Story of the American Federation of Teachers (New York, 1955), 9.
11. American Federationist Jan. 1918, 56; Sterling Spero, Government as Employer (NY, Remsen Press, 1948) 17, 129. The Chicago Teachers Federation joined the AFL as a local in 1902. Commission on Educational Reconstruction, Organizing the Teaching Profession: The Story of the American Federation of Teachers (New York, 1955), 9.
12. AFL Records, Reel 5; American Federationist, Sept. 1919, 815; M. Brady McKusko, "Carriers in a Common Cause: A History of Letter Carriers and the NALC" (Washington, DC, 1986); Spero, 474. NFFE left the AFL in 1931. The AFL chartered its first firefighter local in 1903; by 1918 there were 82 locals and by 1919, 262. David Ziskind, One Thousand Strikes of Government Employees (NY: Columbia University Press, 1940), 53; Philip Kienast, Police and Firefighter Employee Organizations (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1972), 279.
13. AFL Records, Reel 5; American Federationist, Sept. 1919, 815; M. Brady McKusko, "Carriers in a Common Cause: A History of Letter Carriers and the NALC" (Washington, DC, 1986); Spero, 474. NFFE left the AFL in 1931. The AFL chartered its first firefighter local in 1903; by 1918 there were 82 locals and by 1919, 262. David Ziskind, One Thousand Strikes of Government Employees (NY: Columbia University Press, 1940), 53; Philip Kienast, Police and Firefighter Employee Organizations (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1972), 279.
14. AFL Records, Reel 5; American Federationist, Sept. 1919, 815; M. Brady McKusko, "Carriers in a Common Cause: A History of Letter Carriers and the NALC" (Washington, DC, 1986); Spero, 474. NFFE left the AFL in 1931. The AFL chartered its first firefighter local in 1903; by 1918 there were 82 locals and by 1919, 262. David Ziskind, One Thousand Strikes of Government Employees (NY: Columbia University Press, 1940), 53; Philip Kienast, Police and Firefighter Employee Organizations (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1972), 279.
15. AFL Records, Reel 5; American Federationist, Sept. 1919, 815; M. Brady McKusko, "Carriers in a Common Cause: A History of Letter Carriers and the NALC" (Washington, DC, 1986); Spero, 474. NFFE left the AFL in 1931. The AFL chartered its first firefighter local in 1903; by 1918 there were 82 locals and by 1919, 262. David Ziskind, One Thousand Strikes of Government Employees (NY: Columbia University Press, 1940), 53; Philip Kienast, Police and Firefighter Employee Organizations (unpublished PhD diss., Michigan State Univ., 1972), 279.
16. American Federationist, Jan. 1918, 55-57, Feb. 1919, 132, Aug. 1919, 735-37 (supporting pensions for federal employees and bans on Taylorist management techniques in the army and navy appropriations bills), Sept. 1919, 845-856 (overtime for public employees, raises for postal workers, and reducing hours for firefighters); Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1918), 114, 317 (teachers' pensions), 163, 212 (hours limits for firefighters), 178-79, 238-39 (rights of government unions), 115-116, 211, 331 (minimum wage for public workers).
17. American Federationist, Jan. 1918, 55-57, Feb. 1919, 132, Aug. 1919, 735-37 (supporting pensions for federal employees and bans on Taylorist management techniques in the army and navy appropriations bills), Sept. 1919, 845-856 (overtime for public employees, raises for postal workers, and reducing hours for firefighters); Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1918), 114, 317 (teachers' pensions), 163, 212 (hours limits for firefighters), 178-79, 238-39 (rights of government unions), 115-116, 211, 331 (minimum wage for public workers).
18. American Federationist, Sept. 1919, 812-18.
19. American Federationist, Jan. 1918, 55-57; Murray, 5; Frank Grubbs, Samuel Gompers and the Great War: Protecting Labor's Standards (Wake Forest, NC: Meridional Press, 1982).
20. American Federationist, Jan. 1918, 55-57; Murray, 5; Frank Grubbs, Samuel Gompers and the Great War: Protecting Labor's Standards (Wake Forest, NC: Meridional Press, 1982).
21. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1897), 43; Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1917), 394. The American Federation of Labor and the Unions: National and International Union Records From the Samuel Gompers Era (Microfilm collection, Sanford NC: Microfilming Corp. of America) ("AFL Records"), Reels 5, 6.
22. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1897), 43; Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1917), 394. The American Federation of Labor and the Unions: National and International Union Records From the Samuel Gompers Era (Microfilm collection, Sanford NC: Microfilming Corp. of America) ("AFL Records"), Reels 5, 6.
23. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1897), 43; Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1917), 394. The American Federation of Labor and the Unions: National and International Union Records From the Samuel Gompers Era (Microfilm collection, Sanford NC: Microfilming Corp. of America) ("AFL Records"), Reels 5, 6.
24. Proceedings of the Thirty-Ninth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1919), 302; Spero, 256-57; Morrison's letter of Aug. 1, 1919 listed police as one of seven types of workers on which organizers should focus. AFL Records, Reel 5.
25. "Address by Samuel Gompers before Commissioners of the District of Columbia Regarding Organization of Policemen, Sept. 4, 1919," AFL Records, Reel 114, 3-5 (for a longer version of this address, see AFL Records, Reel 125). Gompers listed locals in Oklahoma City, OK; Knoxville, TN; Peoria, IL; Washington, DC; Jersey City, NJ; Macon, GA; Cumberland, MD; Tulsa, OK; Fort Worth, TX; East St. Louis, IL; Norfolk, VA; Pueblo, CO; Boston, MA; Warren, OH; Clarksburg, WV; Portland, OR; St. Paul, MN; Meridian, MS; Evansville, IN; Terre Haute, IN; Moberly, MO; Los Angeles, CA; Wheeling, WV; Chattanooga, TN; Hattiesburg, MS; Miami, FL; Superior, WI; Huntington, WV; Portsmouth, VA; Richmond, VA; Key West, FL; Janesville, OH; and St. Joseph, MO. By mid-September 1919, there were also locals in Lynn, MA; Vicksburg, MS; Belleville, IL; and Topeka, KS. Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, 7. The rationale for allowing police unions was not discussed in convention records, E.C. minutes or vote books, or Gompers' correspondence. AFL Records, Reels 5, 6, 15, 16. The American Federationist did not even mention such unions in 1918 or 1919.
26. AFL Records, Reel 125, 660, 670, 672-73. The Lloyd-LaFollette Act, 37 Stat. 555 (Aug. 24, 1912), passed with the aid of AFL lobbying, reversed the gag rule. See Spero, 3, 17.
27. AFL Records, Reel 114, 10-14 and A-C; Reel 125, 652, 656, 659-62, 667-74; American Federationist, Jan. 1918, 56; Ziskind, 33-39. For a catalogue of public sector strikes, see Spero.
28. AFL Records, Reel 114, 2; Reel 125, 664-66, 675.
29. AFL Records, Reel 5; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (Cambridge, MA, Cambridge University Press, 1987), 271; Call, July 13, 1919, 2; ibid., July 29, 1919, 4; ibid., Sept. 4, 1919, editorial page.
30. AFL Records, Reel 5; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (Cambridge, MA, Cambridge University Press, 1987), 271; Call, July 13, 1919, 2; ibid., July 29, 1919, 4; ibid., Sept. 4, 1919, editorial page.
31. AFL Records, Reel 5; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (Cambridge, MA, Cambridge University Press, 1987), 271; Call, July 13, 1919, 2; ibid., July 29, 1919, 4; ibid., Sept. 4, 1919, editorial page.
32. AFL Records, Reel 5; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (Cambridge, MA, Cambridge University Press, 1987), 271; Call, July 13, 1919, 2; ibid., July 29, 1919, 4; ibid., Sept. 4, 1919, editorial page.
33. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
34. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
35. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
36. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
37. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
38. Winston Crouch, Organized Civil Servants (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978), 160-62; AFL Records, Reel 6; Boston Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2. The Detroit dispute involved the Fellowship of Police, which was not part of the AFL, but in this case had an aggressive union mentality, ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 6.
39. AFL Proceedings (1918), 302; Ziskind, 53-54, 63-64, 195, 242; Spero, 10, 231-32; Russell, 76-77.
40. AFL Records, Reel 6 (advice to police); ibid., Reel 29, City Policemen's Union No. 16718 v. Commissioners of the District of Columbia Equity No. 37142 (DC Supreme Ct., Sept. 4, 1919); Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 2; 41 Stat. 364 (1919); 41 Stat. 398 (1920).
41. AFL Records, Reel 6 (advice to police); ibid., Reel 29, City Policemen's Union No. 16718 v. Commissioners of the District of Columbia Equity No. 37142 (DC Supreme Ct., Sept. 4, 1919); Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 2; 41 Stat. 364 (1919); 41 Stat. 398 (1920).
42. AFL Records, Reel 6 (advice to police); ibid., Reel 29, City Policemen's Union No. 16718 v. Commissioners of the District of Columbia Equity No. 37142 (DC Supreme Ct., Sept. 4, 1919); Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 2; 41 Stat. 364 (1919); 41 Stat. 398 (1920).
43. AFL Records, Reel 6 (advice to police); ibid., Reel 29, City Policemen's Union No. 16718 v. Commissioners of the District of Columbia Equity No. 37142 (DC Supreme Ct., Sept. 4, 1919); Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 2; 41 Stat. 364 (1919); 41 Stat. 398 (1920).
44. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
45. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
46. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
47. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
48. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
49. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
50. Kienast, 30; Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1, 5; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 6, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2; ibid. Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1, 7; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; see generally Zachary Schrag, "Nineteen-Nineteen: The Boston Police Strike in the Context of American Labor," (A.B. Honors thesis, Harvard Univ., 1992).
51. Allen Gammage and Stanley Sachs, Police Unions (Springfield, IL, Thomas, 1972) 34; Kienast, 30; Ziskind, 23-32, 92-94; Boston Evening Transcript, Aug. 9, 1919, 5 (telephone workers); Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 1.
52. Allen Gammage and Stanley Sachs, Police Unions (Springfield, IL, Thomas, 1972) 34; Kienast, 30; Ziskind, 23-32, 92-94; Boston Evening Transcript, Aug. 9, 1919, 5 (telephone workers); Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 1.
53. Allen Gammage and Stanley Sachs, Police Unions (Springfield, IL, Thomas, 1972) 34; Kienast, 30; Ziskind, 23-32, 92-94; Boston Evening Transcript, Aug. 9, 1919, 5 (telephone workers); Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 1.
54. Allen Gammage and Stanley Sachs, Police Unions (Springfield, IL, Thomas, 1972) 34; Kienast, 30; Ziskind, 23-32, 92-94; Boston Evening Transcript, Aug. 9, 1919, 5 (telephone workers); Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 1.
55. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports (New York, 1971), 8; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 10-11. Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge appointed Curtis after O'Meara died in December 1918.
56. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports (New York, 1971), 8; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 10-11. Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge appointed Curtis after O'Meara died in December 1918.
57. Koss, 3-6; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 2, editorial page; Spero, 250. A police station had been condemned six years earlier, but nothing was done about it. Ziskind, 39.
58. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 2.
59. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, 2.
60. Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 10-11. Order 110 created Rule 35, Section 19, which provided: "No member of the Police Force shall join or belong to any organization, club or body composed of present, or present and past members of the force, which is affiliated with or a part of any organization, club, or body outside the department," excepting specified veterans' groups.
61. Russell, 91-92, 98; Ziskind, 43-44; Labor World, Aug. 30, 1919, 1; Spero, 260; Undated circulars, Coolidge collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 5-6.
62. Russell, 91-92, 98; Ziskind, 43-44; Labor World, Aug. 30, 1919, 1; Spero, 260; Undated circulars, Coolidge collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 5-6.
63. Koss, 160-63; Russell, 121-89; Ziskind, 44-48; Spero, 278. For replies to the BCLU's charges, see "Governor Coolidge's Actions," (nd); "Police Commissioner Curtis' Activities: Complete Answer to His Critics" (nd), Calvin Coolidge Collection, Massachusetts State House Library, Box 19 ("Coolidge Collection").
64. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2, 7; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
65. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2, 7; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
66. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2, 7; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
67. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2, 7; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
68. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1-2, 7; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
69. Communications to Edwin U. Curtis Regarding the Boston Police Strike, 1919, Boston Public Library, Special Collections ("Curtis letters"), e.g. from Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919 and Buffalo Courier, Sept. 14, 1919; Coolidge Speech to the Middlesex Club, Oct. 27, 1919, Coolidge Collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 8, 10, 11; Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page.
70. Communications to Edwin U. Curtis Regarding the Boston Police Strike, 1919, Boston Public Library, Special Collections ("Curtis letters"), e.g. from Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919 and Buffalo Courier, Sept. 14, 1919; Coolidge Speech to the Middlesex Club, Oct. 27, 1919, Coolidge Collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 8, 10, 11; Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page.
71. Communications to Edwin U. Curtis Regarding the Boston Police Strike, 1919, Boston Public Library, Special Collections ("Curtis letters"), e.g. from Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919 and Buffalo Courier, Sept. 14, 1919; Coolidge Speech to the Middlesex Club, Oct. 27, 1919, Coolidge Collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 8, 10, 11; Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page.
72. Communications to Edwin U. Curtis Regarding the Boston Police Strike, 1919, Boston Public Library, Special Collections ("Curtis letters"), e.g. from Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919 and Buffalo Courier, Sept. 14, 1919; Coolidge Speech to the Middlesex Club, Oct. 27, 1919, Coolidge Collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 8, 10, 11; Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page.
73. Communications to Edwin U. Curtis Regarding the Boston Police Strike, 1919, Boston Public Library, Special Collections ("Curtis letters"), e.g. from Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919 and Buffalo Courier, Sept. 14, 1919; Coolidge Speech to the Middlesex Club, Oct. 27, 1919, Coolidge Collection; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 8, 10, 11; Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page.
74. Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 7; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 7.
75. Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 7; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 7.
76. Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 7; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 7.
77. Francis, 101-112, 183-84, Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 1. At the discipline hearing Vahey also argued that union policemen would perform their duties during strikes and seek peaceful resolutions of disputes with police management. He added that the ban on AFL affiliation was not "needful," that it violated personal liberty, and that it constituted yellow dog contract requirements which state law banned. Devlin correctly countered that Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U.S. 1 (1915) had struck down laws barring yellow dog contracts. Labor World, Aug. 30, 1919, 1; Koss, 85-92. Ziskind, 12, notes that the distinction between "employees" and "officers" which Devlin emphasized was confusing; the category into which police fell depended on the jurisdiction.
78. Francis, 101-112, 183-84, Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, 1. At the discipline hearing Vahey also argued that union policemen would perform their duties during strikes and seek peaceful resolutions of disputes with police management. He added that the ban on AFL affiliation was not "needful," that it violated personal liberty, and that it constituted yellow dog contract requirements which state law banned. Devlin correctly countered that Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U.S. 1 (1915) had struck down laws barring yellow dog contracts. Labor World, Aug. 30, 1919, 1; Koss, 85-92. Ziskind, 12, notes that the distinction between "employees" and "officers" which Devlin emphasized was confusing; the category into which police fell depended on the jurisdiction.
79. Russell, 81; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, editorial page; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 10, 11; White, 113. For similar concerns about the potential behavior of unionized police in the District of Columbia during strikes, see 58 Cong. Rec. 4890 (Sept. 5, 1919, Sen. Charles Thomas).
80. Russell, 81; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, editorial page; The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, 10, 11; White, 113. For similar concerns about the potential behavior of unionized police in the District of Columbia during strikes, see 58 Cong. Rec. 4890 (Sept. 5, 1919, Sen. Charles Thomas).
81. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
82. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
83. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
84. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
85. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
86. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
87. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
88. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
89. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
90. The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports, Appx., 37-38; Curtis letters, e.g. from the Employers' Association of Eastern Massachusetts, August 16, 1919; Boston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Aug. 27, 1919; Haverhill Chamber of Commerce, Aug. 28, 1919; Massachusetts Real Estate Exchange, Aug. 29, 1919; Fitchburg Steam Engine Co., Sept. 10, 1919; E. B. Badger & Sons, Sept. 13, 1919; Boston Bar Association, Sept. 17, 1919 (noting its earlier stand); Curtis & Co. Manufacturing, Sept. 18, 1919; Exchange Club of Indianapolis, Oct. 6, 1919.
91. Koss, 114-15, 156; Francis, 108-112; Ziskind, 43, 49. The Commission, led by James Storrow, proposed that a special panel consider the officers' demands after the police left the AFL. The Boston Chamber of Commerce and most Boston newspapers endorsed this plan but Curtis rejected it before the Police Union could formally respond to it. See The Boston Police Strike: Two Reports for the Commission's final report and Appx., 8 for Storrow's concerns.
92. White, 113; Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, editorial page; New York Call, Aug. 8, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 3, 1919, 3.
93. White, 113; Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, editorial page; New York Call, Aug. 8, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 3, 1919, 3.
94. White, 113; Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, editorial page; New York Call, Aug. 8, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 3, 1919, 3.
95. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
96. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
97. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
98. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
99. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
100. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
101. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
102. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
103. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
104. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
105. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
106. Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study In National Hysteria, 1919-20 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1964), 9; Montgomery, 6; Russell, 74; Spero, 273; Ziskind, 188; Koss, 45; Labor World, Aug. 23, 1919, 5, 7 ; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page. Curtis letters, e.g. New Hampshire Manufacturing Association, Aug. 22, 1919; Spencer Wire Co., Sept. 12, 1919 (Seattle); N.D. Cass Co., Sept. 12, 1919; New York Sun, Sept. 13, 1919 (anticommunism). Schrag puts the Boston strike in the context of other general strikes. A key issue in the English strikes was a ban on police affiliating with the national labor body. Ron Bean, "Police Unrest, Unionization and the 1919 Strike In Liverpool," Journal of Contemporary History, 15 (1980), 633-53.
107. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 30, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
108. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 30, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
109. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 30, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
110. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 30, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
111. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 16, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1-2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 30, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
112. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, editorial page.
113. Labor World, Aug. 9, 1919, 2, editorial page; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, editorial page.
114. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
115. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
116. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
117. Labor World, Sept. 6, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 13, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 2; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 7.
118. Koss, 223, 226; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1 (Plumbers, Machinists, and Boilermakers would strike). Ziskind, 48, listed the Bartenders, Electrical Workers, Cooks and Waiters, and Garment Workers; Russell, 90-91, named the Plumbers, Machinists, Typographers, Sheet Metal Workers, and Teamsters.
119. Koss, 223, 226; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1 (Plumbers, Machinists, and Boilermakers would strike). Ziskind, 48, listed the Bartenders, Electrical Workers, Cooks and Waiters, and Garment Workers; Russell, 90-91, named the Plumbers, Machinists, Typographers, Sheet Metal Workers, and Teamsters.
120. Koss, 223, 226; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1 (Plumbers, Machinists, and Boilermakers would strike). Ziskind, 48, listed the Bartenders, Electrical Workers, Cooks and Waiters, and Garment Workers; Russell, 90-91, named the Plumbers, Machinists, Typographers, Sheet Metal Workers, and Teamsters.
121. Koss, 223, 226; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1 (Plumbers, Machinists, and Boilermakers would strike). Ziskind, 48, listed the Bartenders, Electrical Workers, Cooks and Waiters, and Garment Workers; Russell, 90-91, named the Plumbers, Machinists, Typographers, Sheet Metal Workers, and Teamsters.
122. Koss, 223, 226; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, 1; ibid., Aug. 23, 1919, 1 (Plumbers, Machinists, and Boilermakers would strike). Ziskind, 48, listed the Bartenders, Electrical Workers, Cooks and Waiters, and Garment Workers; Russell, 90-91, named the Plumbers, Machinists, Typographers, Sheet Metal Workers, and Teamsters.
123. Labor World, Sept. 20, 1919, 2.
124. Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1-2. Ziskind, 49; Koss, 340 (blaming labor). Russell, 193-97, argues that Gompers's secretary, Guy Oyster, pressured the BCLU not to engage in a general strike. Other labor newspapers, such as the Buffalo Labor Journal, supported the BCLU's decision. Labor World, Oct. 11, 1919, 2.
125. Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1-2. Ziskind, 49; Koss, 340 (blaming labor). Russell, 193-97, argues that Gompers's secretary, Guy Oyster, pressured the BCLU not to engage in a general strike. Other labor newspapers, such as the Buffalo Labor Journal, supported the BCLU's decision. Labor World, Oct. 11, 1919, 2.
126. Labor World, Sept. 27, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1-2. Ziskind, 49; Koss, 340 (blaming labor). Russell, 193-97, argues that Gompers's secretary, Guy Oyster, pressured the BCLU not to engage in a general strike. Other labor newspapers, such as the Buffalo Labor Journal, supported the BCLU's decision. Labor World, Oct. 11, 1919, 2.
127. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
128. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
129. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
130. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
131. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
132. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
133. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
134. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
135. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
136. Ziskind, 46-49; Russell, 190-91; Koss, 239-40; Labor World, Sept. 13, 1919, 1-2; ibid., Sept. 20, 1919, editorial page; ibid., Sept. 27, 1919, 1, 2, editorial page; ibid., Oct. 4, 1919, 1; ibid., Oct. 11, 1919, 1, 2, 7; ibid., Oct. 18, 1919, 2; ibid., Oct. 25, 1919, 1; Henry Long, "The Boston Police Strike," Coolidge Collection. The strikers were never reinstated. Koss, 303.
137. Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919, 7; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, 7;
138. Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919, 7; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, 7; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 134-136.
139. Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919, 7; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, 7; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 134-136.
140. AFL Records, Reel 30.
141. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
142. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
143. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
144. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
145. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
146. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
147. Coolidge maintained that the event was a "desertion of duty," not a strike. White, 181; Ziskind, 50, 234, 241-42; Russell, 203-211; Spero, 29-30, 283; Labor World, Oct. 18, 1919, 1; ibid., Nov. 8, 1919, editorial page; AFL Proceedings (1920), 272.
148. In November 1919, the National Federation of Post Office Clerks defeated a proposal to remove a constitutional ban on strikes. The AFT reaffirmed its no-strike rule in 1920. The number of strikes by IAFF locals decreased sharply after the Boston strike, and the IAFF ratified a no-strike constitutional clause in 1930. National public sector unions formed in the 1930s, such as the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) and the American
149. In November 1919, the National Federation of Post Office Clerks defeated a proposal to remove a constitutional ban on strikes. The AFT reaffirmed its no-strike rule in 1920. The number of strikes by IAFF locals decreased sharply after the Boston strike, and the IAFF ratified a no-strike constitutional clause in 1930. National public sector unions formed in the 1930s, such as the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) and the American Federation of Government Employees, adopted similar no-strike rules. Spero, 231; Ziskind, 204-07; Kienast, 35-37; Labor World, Nov. 8, 1919, 1.
150. In November 1919, the National Federation of Post Office Clerks defeated a proposal to remove a constitutional ban on strikes. The AFT reaffirmed its no-strike rule in 1920. The number of strikes by IAFF locals decreased sharply after the Boston strike, and the IAFF ratified a no-strike constitutional clause in 1930. National public sector unions formed in the 1930s, such as the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) and the American Federation of Government Employees, adopted similar no-strike rules. Spero, 231; Ziskind, 204-07; Kienast, 35-37; Labor World, Nov. 8, 1919, 1.
151. In November 1919, the National Federation of Post Office Clerks defeated a proposal to remove a constitutional ban on strikes. The AFT reaffirmed its no-strike rule in 1920. The number of strikes by IAFF locals decreased sharply after the Boston strike, and the IAFF ratified a no-strike constitutional clause in 1930. National public sector unions formed in the 1930s, such as the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) and the American Federation of Government Employees, adopted similar no-strike rules. Spero, 231; Ziskind, 204-07; Kienast, 35-37; Labor World, Nov. 8, 1919, 1.
152. Ziskind, 65; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 182; Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919; Spero, 9, 288; Leibig and Kahn, 22.
153. Ziskind, 65; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 182; Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919; Spero, 9, 288; Leibig and Kahn, 22.
154. Ziskind, 65; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 182; Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919; Spero, 9, 288; Leibig and Kahn, 22.
155. Ziskind, 65; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 182; Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919; Spero, 9, 288; Leibig and Kahn, 22.
156. Ziskind, 65; American Federationist, Feb. 1920, 182; Labor World, Oct. 4, 1919; Spero, 9, 288; Leibig and Kahn, 22.
157. Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1920), 272; AFL-CIO News, Feb. 22, 1969. Some police locals affiliated with AFL unions such as AFSCME beginning in 1939. The International Union of Police Associations, AFL-CIO, formed in 1979, still exists today.
158. Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (1920), 272; AFL-CIO News, Feb. 22, 1969. Some police locals affiliated with AFL unions such as AFSCME beginning in 1939. The International Union of Police Associations, AFL-CIO, formed in 1979, still exists today.
159. Leibig and Kahn; Carol Matlack, "Unionizing Government," National Journal, Sept. 10, 1988, 2252. Local ordinances against AFL police and/or firefighter unions were passed in the 1920s and 1930s in San Antonio, Omaha, Philadelphia, Macon, and Roanoke. Crouch, 163-165; M. W. Aussieker, Jr., Police Collective Bargaining (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 1-4. For Court decisions upholding bans on AFL public sector unions, see City of Jackson v. McLeod, 199 Miss. 676 (1946) (dismissal of thirty-four policemen for joining AFSCME upheld); Seattle High School Teachers Chapt. 200 v. Sharples, 159 Wash. 424 (1930) (teachers).
160. Leibig and Kahn; Carol Matlack, "Unionizing Government," National Journal, Sept. 10, 1988, 2252. Local ordinances against AFL police and/or firefighter unions were passed in the 1920s and 1930s in San Antonio, Omaha, Philadelphia, Macon, and Roanoke. Crouch, 163-165; M. W. Aussieker, Jr., Police Collective Bargaining (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 1-4. For Court decisions upholding bans on AFL public sector unions, see City of Jackson v. McLeod, 199 Miss. 676 (1946) (dismissal of thirty-four policemen for joining AFSCME upheld); Seattle High School Teachers Chapt. 200 v. Sharples, 159 Wash. 424 (1930) (teachers).
161. Leibig and Kahn; Carol Matlack, "Unionizing Government," National Journal, Sept. 10, 1988, 2252. Local ordinances against AFL police and/or firefighter unions were passed in the 1920s and 1930s in San Antonio, Omaha, Philadelphia, Macon, and Roanoke. Crouch, 163-165; M. W. Aussieker, Jr., Police Collective Bargaining (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 1-4. For Court decisions upholding bans on AFL public sector unions, see City of Jackson v. McLeod, 199 Miss. 676 (1946) (dismissal of thirty-four policemen for joining AFSCME upheld); Seattle High School Teachers Chapt. 200 v. Sharples, 159 Wash. 424 (1930) (teachers).
162. Leibig and Kahn; Carol Matlack, "Unionizing Government," National Journal, Sept. 10, 1988, 2252. Local ordinances against AFL police and/or firefighter unions were passed in the 1920s and 1930s in San Antonio, Omaha, Philadelphia, Macon, and Roanoke. Crouch, 163-165; M. W. Aussieker, Jr., Police Collective Bargaining (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 1-4. For Court decisions upholding bans on AFL public sector unions, see City of Jackson v. McLeod, 199 Miss. 676 (1946) (dismissal of thirty-four policemen for joining AFSCME upheld); Seattle High School Teachers Chapt. 200 v. Sharples, 159 Wash. 424 (1930) (teachers).
163. Coolidge speech before the Middlesex Club; Edwin Curtis to Henry Long, April 13, 1920, Coolidge Collection.
164. Coolidge speech before the Middlesex Club; Edwin Curtis to Henry Long, April 13, 1920, Coolidge Collection.
165. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Unions (1958), 4; National Labor Digest, Oct. 1919, 16. Coolidge telegram to Gompers, Sept. 14, 1919, cited in, e.g., City of New Orleans v. Police Ass'n of Louisiana, 369 S.2d 188, 189 (La. Ct. App. 1979) (regarding police strike in New Orleans); Bernard Meltzer and Cass Sunstein, "Public Employee Strikes, Executive Discretion, and the Air Traffic Controllers," 50 U. Chi. L. Rev. 731, 736 (1983). The PATCO strike also prompted the editorial, "Cal Coolidge and the Boston Police Strike," in the Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1981.
166. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Unions (1958), 4; National Labor Digest, Oct. 1919, 16. Coolidge telegram to Gompers, Sept. 14, 1919, cited in, e.g., City of New Orleans v. Police Ass'n of Louisiana, 369 S.2d 188, 189 (La. Ct. App. 1979) (regarding police strike in New Orleans); Bernard Meltzer and Cass Sunstein, "Public Employee Strikes, Executive Discretion, and the Air Traffic Controllers," 50 U. Chi. L. Rev. 731, 736 (1983). The PATCO strike also prompted the editorial, "Cal Coolidge and the Boston Police Strike," in the Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1981.
167. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Unions (1958), 4; National Labor Digest, Oct. 1919, 16. Coolidge telegram to Gompers, Sept. 14, 1919, cited in, e.g., City of New Orleans v. Police Ass'n of Louisiana, 369 S.2d 188, 189 (La. Ct. App. 1979) (regarding police strike in New Orleans); Bernard Meltzer and Cass Sunstein, "Public Employee Strikes, Executive Discretion, and the Air Traffic Controllers," 50 U. Chi. L. Rev. 731, 736 (1983). The PATCO strike also prompted the editorial, "Cal Coolidge and the Boston Police Strike," in the Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1981.
168. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Unions (1958), 4; National Labor Digest, Oct. 1919, 16. Coolidge telegram to Gompers, Sept. 14, 1919, cited in, e.g., City of New Orleans v. Police Ass'n of Louisiana, 369 S.2d 188, 189 (La. Ct. App. 1979) (regarding police strike in New Orleans); Bernard Meltzer and Cass Sunstein, "Public Employee Strikes, Executive Discretion, and the Air Traffic Controllers," 50 U. Chi. L. Rev. 731, 736 (1983). The PATCO strike also prompted the editorial, "Cal Coolidge and the Boston Police Strike," in the Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1981.
169. International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Unions (1958), 4; National Labor Digest, Oct. 1919, 16. Coolidge telegram to Gompers, Sept. 14, 1919, cited in, e.g., City of New Orleans v. Police Ass'n of Louisiana, 369 S.2d 188, 189 (La. Ct. App. 1979) (regarding police strike in New Orleans); Bernard Meltzer and Cass Sunstein, "Public Employee Strikes, Executive Discretion, and the Air Traffic Controllers," 50 U. Chi. L. Rev. 731, 736 (1983). The PATCO strike also prompted the editorial, "Cal Coolidge and the Boston Police Strike," in the Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1981.
170. Russell, 90; New York Call, Oct. 2, 1919, editorial page.
171. Russell, 90; New York Call, Oct. 2, 1919, editorial page.