"The cop will get you": The police and discretionary juvenile justice, 1890-1940

Journal of Social History

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 349-371

  Wolcott, David ^a  

^a CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041027261     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0152     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. John Peter Altgeld, Live Questions; including Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1890), 182-183. Similar ideas are also expressed in Timothy D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 3rd ed. (1907; reprint New York, 1977), 56-57; J. J. Kelso, "Reforming Delinquent Children," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred J. Herr, 1903), 234-235; Mornay Williams, "The Street Boy - Who He Is, and What to Do with Him," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred. J. Herr, 1903), 241; National Probation Association, "Pinched for Stealing," solicitation pamphlet, ca. 1925, located in clipping file "Juvenile Court," Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
2. John Peter Altgeld, Live Questions; including Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1890), 182-183. Similar ideas are also expressed in Timothy D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 3rd ed. (1907; reprint New York, 1977), 56-57; J. J. Kelso, "Reforming Delinquent Children," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred J. Herr, 1903), 234-235; Mornay Williams, "The Street Boy - Who He Is, and What to Do with Him," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred. J. Herr, 1903), 241; National Probation Association, "Pinched for Stealing," solicitation pamphlet, ca. 1925, located in clipping file "Juvenile Court," Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
3. John Peter Altgeld, Live Questions; including Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1890), 182-183. Similar ideas are also expressed in Timothy D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 3rd ed. (1907; reprint New York, 1977), 56-57; J. J. Kelso, "Reforming Delinquent Children," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred J. Herr, 1903), 234-235; Mornay Williams, "The Street Boy - Who He Is, and What to Do with Him," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred. J. Herr, 1903), 241; National Probation Association, "Pinched for Stealing," solicitation pamphlet, ca. 1925, located in clipping file "Juvenile Court," Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
4. John Peter Altgeld, Live Questions; including Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1890), 182-183. Similar ideas are also expressed in Timothy D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 3rd ed. (1907; reprint New York, 1977), 56-57; J. J. Kelso, "Reforming Delinquent Children," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred J. Herr, 1903), 234-235; Mornay Williams, "The Street Boy - Who He Is, and What to Do with Him," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred. J. Herr, 1903), 241; National Probation Association, "Pinched for Stealing," solicitation pamphlet, ca. 1925, located in clipping file "Juvenile Court," Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
5. John Peter Altgeld, Live Questions; including Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims, 3rd. ed. (Chicago, 1890), 182-183. Similar ideas are also expressed in Timothy D. Hurley, Origin of the Illinois Juvenile Court Law, 3rd ed. (1907; reprint New York, 1977), 56-57; J. J. Kelso, "Reforming Delinquent Children," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred J. Herr, 1903), 234-235; Mornay Williams, "The Street Boy - Who He Is, and What to Do with Him," in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1903, ed. Isabel C. Barrows (Fred. J. Herr, 1903), 241; National Probation Association, "Pinched for Stealing," solicitation pamphlet, ca. 1925, located in clipping file "Juvenile Court," Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.
6. Bessie Kelly, "The Cop Will Get You," The Survey 49 (January 15, 1923): 505-506. See also Daisy Lee Worthington Worcester, "Half-Brother," The Survey 64 (April 15, 1930): 82-85.
7. Bessie Kelly, "The Cop Will Get You," The Survey 49 (January 15, 1923): 505-506. See also Daisy Lee Worthington Worcester, "Half-Brother," The Survey 64 (April 15, 1930): 82-85.
8. Dead End (Samuel Goldwyn, 1937); West Side Story (Mirisch /Seven Arts, 1961).
9. Dead End (Samuel Goldwyn, 1937); West Side Story (Mirisch /Seven Arts, 1961).
10. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
11. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
12. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
13. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
14. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
15. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
16. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
17. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
18. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
19. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
20. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
21. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
22. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
23. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
24. This description is based on the voluminous secondary literature on nineteenth- century juvenile justice and the origins of the juvenile court. See Thomas J. Bernard, The Cycle of Juvenile Justice (New York, 1992); Elizabeth J. Clapp, Mothers of All Children: Women Reformers and the Rise of Juvenile Courts in Progressive America (University Park, PA, 1998); Sanford J. Fox, "Juvenile Justice Reform: An Historical Perspective," Stanford Law Review 22 (June 1970): 1187-1239; Joseph M. Hawes, Children in Urban Society: Juvenile Delinquency in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1971); Herbert H. Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States (Chapel Hill, 1927); Robert M. Mennel, Thorns and Thistles: Juvenile Delinquents in the United States, 1825-1940 (Hanover, NH, 1973); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (Chicago, 1969); David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston, 1971); David J. Rothman, Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America (Boston, 1980); Ellen Ryerson, The Best-Laid Plans: America's Juvenile Court Experiment (New York, 1978); Steven L. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent: The Theory and Practice of "Progressive" Juvenile Justice (Chicago, 1977); Steven Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society, ed. Norval Morris and David J. Rothman (New York, 1995); Eric C. Schneider, In the Web of Class: Delinquents and Reformers in Boston, 1810s- 1930s (New York, 1992); David Spinoza Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child: Juvenile Justice in Chicago, 1870-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997); Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest?: Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1982).
25. Lou, Juvenile Courts; Hawes, Children in Urban Society, esp. 158-190, 225-262. On Progressivism more generally, see Arthur S. Link and Richard L. McCormick, Progressivism (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1983)
26. Lou, Juvenile Courts; Hawes, Children in Urban Society, esp. 158-190, 225-262. On Progressivism more generally, see Arthur S. Link and Richard L. McCormick, Progressivism (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1983).
27. Lou, Juvenile Courts; Hawes, Children in Urban Society, esp. 158-190, 225-262. On Progressivism more generally, see Arthur S. Link and Richard L. McCormick, Progressivism (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1983).
28. Platt, The Child Savers; Rothman, Conscience and Convenience. See also Randall Sheldon and Lynn Osbourne, "'For Their Own Good': Class Interests and the Child- Saving Movement in Memphis, Tennessee, 1900-1917,"Criminology 27 (1989): 747-767.
29. Platt, The Child Savers; Rothman, Conscience and Convenience. See also Randall Sheldon and Lynn Osbourne, "'For Their Own Good': Class Interests and the Child- Saving Movement in Memphis, Tennessee, 1900-1917,"Criminology 27 (1989): 747-767.
30. Platt, The Child Savers; Rothman, Conscience and Convenience. See also Randall Sheldon and Lynn Osbourne, "'For Their Own Good': Class Interests and the Child- Saving Movement in Memphis, Tennessee, 1900-1917,"Criminology 27 (1989): 747-767.
31. Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent, 55-78, 157-188.
32. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995). Odem's work is also the best-known of a number of recent histories of juvenile justice that have made gender a key issue. Analysis of gender disparities in juvenile justice was pioneered in Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach, "The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era," Harvard Educational Review 48 (February 1978): 65-93. Among more recent works, see also Ruth M. Alexander, The "Girl Problem": Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1995); Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD (Philadelphia, 1998).
33. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995). Odem's work is also the best-known of a number of recent histories of juvenile justice that have made gender a key issue. Analysis of gender disparities in juvenile justice was pioneered in Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach, "The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era," Harvard Educational Review 48 (February 1978): 65-93. Among more recent works, see also Ruth M. Alexander, The "Girl Problem": Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1995); Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD (Philadelphia, 1998).
34. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995). Odem's work is also the best-known of a number of recent histories of juvenile justice that have made gender a key issue. Analysis of gender disparities in juvenile justice was pioneered in Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach, "The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era," Harvard Educational Review 48 (February 1978): 65-93. Among more recent works, see also Ruth M. Alexander, The "Girl Problem": Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1995); Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD (Philadelphia, 1998).
35. Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995). Odem's work is also the best-known of a number of recent histories of juvenile justice that have made gender a key issue. Analysis of gender disparities in juvenile justice was pioneered in Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach, "The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era," Harvard Educational Review 48 (February 1978): 65-93. Among more recent works, see also Ruth M. Alexander, The "Girl Problem": Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1995); Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD (Philadelphia, 1998).
36. Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child"; L. Mara Dodge, "Our Juvenile Court Has Become More Like a Criminal Than a Parental Court: A Century of Reform at the Cook County (Chicago) Juvenile Court," paper presented at the American Historical Association annual meeting, Chicago, Ill., January 7, 2000.
37. Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child"; L. Mara Dodge, "Our Juvenile Court Has Become More Like a Criminal Than a Parental Court: A Century of Reform at the Cook County (Chicago) Juvenile Court," paper presented at the American Historical Association annual meeting, Chicago, Ill., January 7, 2000.
38. Lawrence M. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1981). See also Samuel Walker, Sense and Nonsense about Crime and Drugs: A Policy Guide, 3rd. ed. (Belmont, Cal., 1994), 29-36.
39. Lawrence M. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870-1910 (Chapel Hill, 1981). See also Samuel Walker, Sense and Nonsense about Crime and Drugs: A Policy Guide, 3rd. ed. (Belmont, Cal., 1994), 29-36.
40. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
41. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
42. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
43. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
44. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
45. Donald J . Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., "Police Control of Juveniles," American Sociological Review 35 (1970): 63-77; Donald J. Black, The Manners and Customs of the Police (New York, 1980); Richard M. Brede, "Complainants and Kids: The Role of Citizen Complainants in the Social Production of Juvenile Cases," in Law and Order in American Society, ed. Joseph M. Hawes (Port Washington, NY, 1979), 77-100; Larry K. Gaines, Victor E. Kappeler, and Joseph B. Vaughn, Policing in America, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati, OH, 1999), 251-256; Robert J. Lundman, Richard E. Sykes, and John P. Clark, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1979): 74-91; Douglas A. Smith and Christy A. Visher, "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions," Social Problems 29 (December 1981): 167-177.
46. Ben B. Lindsey, "The Boy and the Court," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 350.
47. Charles R. Henderson, "Juvenile Courts: Problems of Administration," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 342; Julia C. Lathrop, "The Development of the Probation System in a Large City," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 345. Elizabeth Clapp devotes detailed attention to the volunteer probation officers, but she does not discuss police probation officers at all. See Clapp, Mothers of All Children, 64-70, 166-168.
48. Charles R. Henderson, "Juvenile Courts: Problems of Administration," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 342; Julia C. Lathrop, "The Development of the Probation System in a Large City," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 345. Elizabeth Clapp devotes detailed attention to the volunteer probation officers, but she does not discuss police probation officers at all. See Clapp, Mothers of All Children, 64-70, 166-168.
49. Charles R. Henderson, "Juvenile Courts: Problems of Administration," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 342; Julia C. Lathrop, "The Development of the Probation System in a Large City," Charities 13 (January 7, 1905): 345. Elizabeth Clapp devotes detailed attention to the volunteer probation officers, but she does not discuss police probation officers at all. See Clapp, Mothers of All Children, 64-70, 166-168.
50. Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Report for 1909 (Chicago, 1910), 15; Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1923 (Chicago, 1924), 21.
51. Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Report for 1909 (Chicago, 1910), 15; Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1923 (Chicago, 1924), 21.
52. In 1909, for example, 39 percent (n = 12 / 31) of police probation officers had Irish surnames. Even in 1928, when Chicago's population had become far more diversified, the Irish still constituted 31 percent (n = 9 / 29) of police probation officers. Police probation officers in 1909 listed in Gertrude Howe Britten to Harry E. Smoot (July 14, 1909), Juvenile Protective Association Papers, folder 16, 2, Special Collections Department, University of Illinois at Chicago; police probation officers in 1928 listed in Chicago Police Department, Annual, Report (1928), 57. Ethnic extraction of names derived from Patrick Harris and Flavia Hodge, A Dictionary of Surnames (Oxford, 1988).
53. Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1915, 10; Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1917 (Chicago, 1918), 7; Helen R. Jeter, The Chicago Juvenile Court, US Children's Bureau Publication No. 104 (Washington, DC, 1922), 33.
54. Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 32-33; Clifford R. Shaw and Earl D. Myers, "The Juvenile Delinquent" in The Illinois Crime Survey, ed. Illinois Association for Criminal Justice (1929; reprint Montclair, NJ, 1968), 678; Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems (Chicago, 1931), 169-170.
55. Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 32-33; Clifford R. Shaw and Earl D. Myers, "The Juvenile Delinquent" in The Illinois Crime Survey, ed. Illinois Association for Criminal Justice (1929; reprint Montclair, NJ, 1968), 678; Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems (Chicago, 1931), 169-170.
56. Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 32-33; Clifford R. Shaw and Earl D. Myers, "The Juvenile Delinquent" in The Illinois Crime Survey, ed. Illinois Association for Criminal Justice (1929; reprint Montclair, NJ, 1968), 678; Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems (Chicago, 1931), 169-170.
57. Henderson, "Juvenile Courts," 342.
58. Britten to Smoot (July 14, 1909), 2.
59. Police probation officers filed 18,640 of 22,609 delinquency petitions between 1918 and 1926. The Cook County Juvenile Court also dealt with cases of dependency (neglect and abuse) and provided pensions to widowed and single mothers. As a result, the juvenile court received a total of 48,605 petitions between 1918 and 1926, of which delinquency petitions filed by the Chicago Police Department constituted 38 percent. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports (1918-1926); Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1923, 22; and Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1926 (Chicago, 1927), 16. The best discussion of an early juvenile court's treatment of dependency cases may be found in Jennifer Ann Trost, "Gateway to Justice: A Social History of Juvenile Court and Child Welfare in Memphis, Tennessee, 1910-1929" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). On mother's pensions, see Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child," 276-328, and Joanne L. Goodwill, Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1911-1929 (Chicago, 1997).
60. Police probation officers filed 18,640 of 22,609 delinquency petitions between 1918 and 1926. The Cook County Juvenile Court also dealt with cases of dependency (neglect and abuse) and provided pensions to widowed and single mothers. As a result, the juvenile court received a total of 48,605 petitions between 1918 and 1926, of which delinquency petitions filed by the Chicago Police Department constituted 38 percent. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports (1918-1926); Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1923, 22; and Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1926 (Chicago, 1927), 16. The best discussion of an early juvenile court's treatment of dependency cases may be found in Jennifer Ann Trost, "Gateway to Justice: A Social History of Juvenile Court and Child Welfare in Memphis, Tennessee, 1910-1929" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). On mother's pensions, see Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child," 276-328, and Joanne L. Goodwill, Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1911-1929 (Chicago, 1997).
61. Police probation officers filed 18,640 of 22,609 delinquency petitions between 1918 and 1926. The Cook County Juvenile Court also dealt with cases of dependency (neglect and abuse) and provided pensions to widowed and single mothers. As a result, the juvenile court received a total of 48,605 petitions between 1918 and 1926, of which delinquency petitions filed by the Chicago Police Department constituted 38 percent. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports (1918-1926); Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1923, 22; and Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1926 (Chicago, 1927), 16. The best discussion of an early juvenile court's treatment of dependency cases may be found in Jennifer Ann Trost, "Gateway to Justice: A Social History of Juvenile Court and Child Welfare in Memphis, Tennessee, 1910-1929" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). On mother's pensions, see Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child," 276-328, and Joanne L. Goodwill, Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1911-1929 (Chicago, 1997).
62. Police probation officers filed 18,640 of 22,609 delinquency petitions between 1918 and 1926. The Cook County Juvenile Court also dealt with cases of dependency (neglect and abuse) and provided pensions to widowed and single mothers. As a result, the juvenile court received a total of 48,605 petitions between 1918 and 1926, of which delinquency petitions filed by the Chicago Police Department constituted 38 percent. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports (1918-1926); Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1923, 22; and Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1926 (Chicago, 1927), 16. The best discussion of an early juvenile court's treatment of dependency cases may be found in Jennifer Ann Trost, "Gateway to Justice: A Social History of Juvenile Court and Child Welfare in Memphis, Tennessee, 1910-1929" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). On mother's pensions, see Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child," 276-328, and Joanne L. Goodwill, Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1911-1929 (Chicago, 1997).
63. Cook County (IL), Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1915 (Chicago, 1916), 9, 10.
64. Calculated from data published in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports, 1919-1930. The Annual Report for 1918 does not specify juvenile offenses.
65. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports, 1918-1930.
66. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports, 1918-1930. Similar points are made in Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 40-41; Shaw and Myers, "Juvenile Delinquent," 678; and Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems, 172-173.
67. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports, 1918-1930. Similar points are made in Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 40-41; Shaw and Myers, "Juvenile Delinquent," 678; and Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems, 172-173.
68. Calculated from data in Chicago Police Department, Annual Reports, 1918-1930. Similar points are made in Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 40-41; Shaw and Myers, "Juvenile Delinquent," 678; and Citizens' Police Committee, Chicago Police Problems, 172-173.
69. Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 41; "A short interview with Officer O'Connor," ca. 1926, Ernest W. Burgess Papers, box 37, folder 2, Special Collections, Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.
70. Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 41; "A short interview with Officer O'Connor," ca. 1926, Ernest W. Burgess Papers, box 37, folder 2, Special Collections, Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.
71. Britten to Smoot (July 14, 1909), 4-5.
72. Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court, Report of the Juvenile Court of the fiscal year ending November 13, 1913 (Chicago, 1914), 99.
73. Katherine F. Lenroot and Emma O. Lundberg, Juvenile Courts at Work: A Study of the Organization and Methods of Ten Courts, US Children's Bureau Publication No. 104 (1925; reprint, New York, 1975), 40-51.
74. For boys' arrests decided by the Juvenile Division, n = 15,659 / 34,423. In any given year, the Detroit police themselves determined the outcomes of cases for between 35 and 52 percent of boys arrested. Calculated from data in Detroit Police Department, Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Metropolitan Police of Detroit, Michigan to the Common Council of the City of Detroit (1920-1927, 1929-30). The Annual Report for 1928 was unavailable, as were complete data on dispositions of girls' arrests.
75. For boys, n = 24,452 / 39,810; for girls, n = 6,283 / 10,872. For any given year, the LAPD determined the outcomes of cases for between 51 and 71 percent of juveniles arrested. Calculated from data in Los Angeles Police Department, Annual Reports of the Police Department (1930-31 to 1940).
76. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, 1981); Eugene J. Watts, "Police Priorities in Twentieth Century St. Louis," Journal of Social History 14 (Summer 1981): 649-673; Eugene J. Watts, "Police Response to Crime and Disorder in Twentieth-Century St. Louis," Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 340-358.
77. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, 1981); Eugene J. Watts, "Police Priorities in Twentieth Century St. Louis," Journal of Social History 14 (Summer 1981): 649-673; Eugene J. Watts, "Police Response to Crime and Disorder in Twentieth-Century St. Louis," Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 340-358.
78. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric
79. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, 1981); Eugene J. Watts, "Police Priorities in Twentieth Century St. Louis," Journal of Social History 14 (Summer 1981): 649-673; Eugene J. Watts, "Police Response to Crime and Disorder in Twentieth-Century St. Louis," Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 340-358.
80. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, 1981); Eugene J. Watts, "Police Priorities in Twentieth Century St. Louis," Journal of Social History 14 (Summer 1981): 649-673; Eugene J. Watts, "Police Response to Crime and Disorder in Twentieth-Century St. Louis," Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 340-358.
81. On police professionalization, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 40-91; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement; A History (St. Louis, 1981), 64-71, 115-117; Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism (Lexington, Mass., 1977), 53-78. On the changing functions of the police, see Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, 1981); Eugene J. Watts, "Police Priorities in Twentieth Century St. Louis," Journal of Social History 14 (Summer 1981): 649-673; Eugene J. Watts, "Police Response to Crime and Disorder in Twentieth-Century St. Louis," Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 340-358.
82. Analyzing different data from different cities at different times obviously does not demonstrate change over time, nor do I intend it to. Instead, I intend to offer two illustrative models that demonstrate different police approaches to the problem of regulating youthful misconduct.
83. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
84. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
85. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
86. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
87. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
88. All quantitative descriptions of juvenile arrests in 1890s Detroit are based on a sample of juvenile arrests in the Detroit Police Department's "Record of Arrests" for the years 1890, 1893, and 1896 (volumes 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, and 24), all located in Police Department Collection, Detroit City Archives, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library (hereafter cited as "PD/CA"). The sample includes 20 percent of boys arrested who fell between the ages of 8 and 16. A separate analysis was also conducted of all girls between the ages of 10 and 17 who were arrested in these years. Sampling these three years yielded 367 male arrests and 183 female arrests and revealed no obvious variations from year to year. Age groupings were chosen because the Detroit police almost never arrested boys younger than 8 or girls younger than 10 and because these age groups parallel those which later fell under the jurisdiction of the Wayne County Juvenile Court following its 1907 creation. Descriptions of arrest patterns for the total Detroit population are derived from different sources - tabulated aggregate data published in the Detroit Police Department's annual reports. See Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1890 (Detroit, 1891), 69-72; Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1893 (Detroit, 1894), 57-59; Detroit Police Department, Thirty-First Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1895 (Detroit, 1896), 54. The 32nd Annual Report (1896) is unavailable, so data from the previous year's report was substituted. Arrest rates were calculated by dividing the total number of arrests from the three sampled years (for boys, multiplied by 5 to compensate for the 20 percent sample) by the Detroit population for the appropriate age groups, interpolated from US census data. See US Department of the Interior, Census Office, Report of the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part II (Washington, 1897), 119; US Bureau of the Census, Census Reports Volume II. Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900. Population (Washington, 1902), 128. For a more detailed methodological discussion, see David Bryan Wolcott, "Cops and Kids: The Police and Juvenile Delinquency in Three American Cities, 1890-1940" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 2000).
89. The historian Eric Monkkonen has shown that public order charges comprised over half of all urban arrests (in a nation-wide sample of cities) between 1860 and 1920. See Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 64-85; Eric H. Monkkonen, "A Disorderly People?: Order in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Journal of American History 68 (December 1981): 539-559. Similarly, Friedman and Percival have demonstrated that 64 percent of the arrests in Oakland, California between 1875 and 1910 were for public order offenses. See Friedman and Percival, Roots of Justice, 67-113.
90. The historian Eric Monkkonen has shown that public order charges comprised over half of all urban arrests (in a nation-wide sample of cities) between 1860 and 1920. See Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 64-85; Eric H. Monkkonen, "A Disorderly People?: Order in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Journal of American History 68 (December 1981): 539-559. Similarly, Friedman and Percival have demonstrated that 64 percent of the arrests in Oakland, California between 1875 and 1910 were for public order offenses. See Friedman and Percival, Roots of Justice, 67-113.
91. The historian Eric Monkkonen has shown that public order charges comprised over half of all urban arrests (in a nation-wide sample of cities) between 1860 and 1920. See Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 64-85; Eric H. Monkkonen, "A Disorderly People?: Order in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Journal of American History 68 (December 1981): 539-559. Similarly, Friedman and Percival have demonstrated that 64 percent of the arrests in Oakland, California between 1875 and 1910 were for public order offenses. See Friedman and Percival, Roots of Justice, 67-113.
92. N = 15,168 / 20,918. Calculated from Detroit Police Dept., Annual Reports, 1890, 1893, and 1895. See also Rebecca Reed, "Regulating the Regulators: Ideology and Practice in the Policing of Detroit, 1880-1918" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991); John C. Schneider, "Public Order and the Geography of the City: Crime, Violence, and the Police in Detroit, 1845-1875," Journal of Urban History 4 (February 1978): 183-208; John C. Schneider, Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880: A Geography of Crime, Riot, and Policing (Lincoln, 1980), 126-127.
93. N = 15,168 / 20,918. Calculated from Detroit Police Dept., Annual Reports, 1890, 1893, and 1895. See also Rebecca Reed, "Regulating the Regulators: Ideology and Practice in the Policing of Detroit, 1880-1918" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991); John C. Schneider, "Public Order and the Geography of the City: Crime, Violence, and the Police in Detroit, 1845-1875," Journal of Urban History 4 (February 1978): 183-208; John C. Schneider, Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880: A Geography of Crime, Riot, and Policing (Lincoln, 1980), 126-127.
94. N = 15,168 / 20,918. Calculated from Detroit Police Dept., Annual Reports, 1890, 1893, and 1895. See also Rebecca Reed, "Regulating the Regulators: Ideology and Practice in the Policing of Detroit, 1880-1918" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1991); John C. Schneider, "Public Order and the Geography of the City: Crime, Violence, and the Police in Detroit, 1845-1875," Journal of Urban History 4 (February 1978): 183-208; John C. Schneider, Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880: A Geography of Crime, Riot, and Policing (Lincoln, 1980), 126-127.
95. N = 57 / 367. Calculated from Detroit juvenile arrest database.
96. For boys, n = 246 / 367; calculated from Detroit juvenile arrest database. For the total male population, n = 5,411 / 20,918; calculated from Detroit Police Dept., Annual Reports, 1890, 1893, 1895.
97. See, as examples, "Complaints, Vol. 1," May 25, 1896, 21; May 25, 1896, 26 and July 6, 1896, 85; "Complaints, Vol. 2," Dec. 22, 1897, 73; May 14, 1898, 331; and June 24, 1898, 419; "Complaints, Vol. 11," June 21, 1903, 119; and "Complaints, Vol. 18," Jan. 24, 1908, 148, all PD/CA.
98. "Complaints, Vol. 1," June 1, 1896, 30, PD/CA.
99. "Complaints, Vol. 3," May 7, 1898, 316, PD/CA.
100. "Incidental Events," October 28, 1899; "Incidental Events," August 21, 1905, PD/CA.
101. Michigan's compulsory education laws are quoted in Richard A. Bolt, Juvenile Offenders in the City of Detroit, With Suggestions for the Establishment of a Juvenile Court and Probation System (Ann Arbor, 1903), 8-9, 27-28, and in Michigan State Reform School, Report of the Superintendent of the State Reform School at Lansing Michigan, to the State Board of Inspectors for the Biennial Period ending June 30, 1892 (Lansing, 1892), xvi-xvii. On the concept of "status offenses," see Steven Schlossman and Susan Turner, "Status Offenders, Criminal Offenders, and Children 'At Risk' in Early Twentieth-Century Juvenile Court" in Children at Risk in America: History, Concepts, and Public Policy, ed. Roberta Wollons (Albany, 1993), 32-57.
102. Michigan's compulsory education laws are quoted in Richard A. Bolt, Juvenile Offenders in the City of Detroit, With Suggestions for the Establishment of a Juvenile Court and Probation System (Ann Arbor, 1903), 8-9, 27-28, and in Michigan State Reform School, Report of the Superintendent of the State Reform School at Lansing Michigan, to the State Board of Inspectors for the Biennial Period ending June 30, 1892 (Lansing, 1892), xvi-xvii. On the concept of "status offenses," see Steven Schlossman and Susan Turner, "Status Offenders, Criminal Offenders, and Children 'At Risk' in Early Twentieth-Century Juvenile Court" in Children at Risk in America: History, Concepts, and Public Policy, ed. Roberta Wollons (Albany, 1993), 32-57.
103. Michigan's compulsory education laws are quoted in Richard A. Bolt, Juvenile Offenders in the City of Detroit, With Suggestions for the Establishment of a Juvenile Court and Probation System (Ann Arbor, 1903), 8-9, 27-28, and in Michigan State Reform School, Report of the Superintendent of the State Reform School at Lansing Michigan, to the State Board of Inspectors for the Biennial Period ending June 30, 1892 (Lansing, 1892), xvi-xvii. On the concept of "status offenses," see Steven Schlossman and Susan Turner, "Status Offenders, Criminal Offenders, and Children 'At Risk' in Early Twentieth-Century Juvenile Court" in Children at Risk in America: History, Concepts, and Public Policy, ed. Roberta Wollons (Albany, 1993), 32-57.
104. N = 64 / 367. Calculated from Detroit juvenile arrest database.
105. N = 23 / 62. Calculated from Detroit juvenile arrest database.
106. On diversion, see John P. Kenney and Dan G. Pursuit, Police Work with Juveniles and the Administration of Juvenile Justice, 5th ed. (1954; Springfield, Ill., 1975), 198-211; Edwin M. Lemert, "Diversion in Juvenile Justice: What Hath Been Wrought," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1981): 34-45.
107. On diversion, see John P. Kenney and Dan G. Pursuit, Police Work with Juveniles and the Administration of Juvenile Justice, 5th ed. (1954; Springfield, Ill., 1975), 198-211; Edwin M. Lemert, "Diversion in Juvenile Justice: What Hath Been Wrought," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 18 (January 1981): 34-45.
108. For boys, n = 88 / 367; calculated from Detroit juvenile arrest database. For all arrests, n = 2,339 / 25,381; calculated from Detroit Police Dept., Annual Reports, 1890,1893, and 1895. The Detroit Police Department's tabulated data did not distinguish dispositions by sex, so this last finding includes both male and female arrests.
109. "Complaints, Vol. 3," May 8, 1898, 319, PD/CA. Modern studies of police also show that citizen complainants often influence the outcome of encounters between police and adolescents. See Black and Reiss, "Police Control of Juveniles," 63-77; Brede, "Complainants and Kids," 77-100; Lundman et al, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," 74-91.
110. "Complaints, Vol. 3," May 8, 1898, 319, PD/CA. Modern studies of police also show that citizen complainants often influence the outcome of encounters between police and adolescents. See Black and Reiss, "Police Control of Juveniles," 63-77; Brede, "Complainants and Kids," 77-100; Lundman et al, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," 74-91.
111. "Complaints, Vol. 3," May 8, 1898, 319, PD/CA. Modern studies of police also show that citizen complainants often influence the outcome of encounters between police and adolescents. See Black and Reiss, "Police Control of Juveniles," 63-77; Brede, "Complainants and Kids," 77-100; Lundman et al, "Police Control of Juveniles: A Replication," 74-91.
112. N = 37 / 64. Cases of boy status offenders who were referred to the courts are described in Bolt, Juvenile Offenders, 49-57.
113. Quotation from Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1891 (Detroit, 1892), 42. See also Bolt, Juvenile Offenders, 33-34.
114. Quotation from Detroit Police Department, Twenty-Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, 1891 (Detroit, 1892), 42. See also Bolt, Juvenile Offenders, 33-34.
115. Tanenhaus, "Policing the Child," 380-403.
116. Fogelson, Big-City Police, 168-241; Johnson, American Law Enforcement, 105-121; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America; Walker, Police Reform, 139-166; Gerald Woods, The Police in Los Angeles: Reform and Professionalization (New York, 1993).
117. Fogelson, Big-City Police, 168-241; Johnson, American Law Enforcement, 105-121; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America; Walker, Police Reform, 139-166; Gerald Woods, The Police in Los Angeles: Reform and Professionalization (New York, 1993).
118. Fogelson, Big-City Police, 168-241; Johnson, American Law Enforcement, 105-121; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America; Walker, Police Reform, 139-166; Gerald Woods, The Police in Los Angeles: Reform and Professionalization (New York, 1993).
119. Fogelson, Big-City Police, 168-241; Johnson, American Law Enforcement, 105-121; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America; Walker, Police Reform, 139-166; Gerald Woods, The Police in Los Angeles: Reform and Professionalization (New York, 1993).
120. Fogelson, Big-City Police, 168-241; Johnson, American Law Enforcement, 105-121; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America; Walker, Police Reform, 139-166; Gerald Woods, The Police in Los Angeles: Reform and Professionalization (New York, 1993).
121. Calculated from data in Los Angeles Police Department, Annual Reports (1930-31 to 1940). The LAPD's tabulated arrest data listed the number of arrests for individual charges, but also placed each charge in one of five degree categories: felonies (such as auto theft, burglary, assault, etc.), misdemeanors (such as petty theft, battery), non-criminal offenses (such as dependency, sexual delinquency), violations of municipal ordinances, and federal offenses. The final three categories account for the differences between the total distribution of arrests and the sum of felony and misdemeanor arrests.
122. Calculated from LAPD, Annual Report (1940), 72-75. Data on the African-American share of the Los Angeles population taken from US Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Population; Volume II Characteristics of the Population (Washington, 1943), 629. The US Census did not report the Hispanic population of Los Angeles in 1940, so that data are taken from the historian Edward Escobar's population estimate (based on local sources) of 133,000 Hispanics. See Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999), 166. Escobar argues that arrests cannot be used as a measure of criminal behavior, and that LAPD arrest data thus do not indicate excessive criminality by Mexican-American youth. Arrests, however, can be used to measure police behavior, and that is the sense in which these data are presented. See Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity, 186-202.
123. Calculated from LAPD, Annual Report (1940), 72-75. Data on the African-American share of the Los Angeles population taken from US Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Population; Volume II Characteristics of the Population (Washington, 1943), 629. The US Census did not report the Hispanic population of Los Angeles in 1940, so that data are taken from the historian Edward Escobar's population estimate (based on local sources) of 133,000 Hispanics. See Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999), 166. Escobar argues that arrests cannot be used as a measure of criminal behavior, and that LAPD arrest data thus do not indicate excessive criminality by Mexican-American youth. Arrests, however, can be used to measure police behavior, and that is the sense in which these data are presented. See Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity, 186-202.
124. Calculated from LAPD, Annual Report (1940), 72-75. Data on the African-American share of the Los Angeles population taken from US Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940, Population; Volume II Characteristics of the Population (Washington, 1943), 629. The US Census did not report the Hispanic population of Los Angeles in 1940, so that data are taken from the historian Edward Escobar's population estimate (based on local sources) of 133,000 Hispanics. See Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999), 166. Escobar argues that arrests cannot be used as a measure of criminal behavior, and that LAPD arrest data thus do not indicate excessive criminality by Mexican-American youth. Arrests, however, can be used to measure police behavior, and that is the sense in which these data are presented. See Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity, 186-202.
125. A systematic sampling technique was employed to select 10 percent of delinquency cases petitioned to the Los Angeles County Juvenile Court by the LAPD in 1940 (cases petitioned by other agencies, such as the county sheriff's office or probation department, were excluded, as were dependency cases - LAPD-initiated cases involving neglect and abuse). The resulting sample included 300 male offenders and 68 females between the ages of 10 and 17. The principal documents used for this analysis were reports filed with the juvenile court by the LAPD's Crime Prevention Division. The original case files are part of a much larger data set of all new petitions filed in 1903, 1910, 1920, 1930, 1940, 1950, and approximately two thirds of the petitions filed in 1960, altogether totaling over 25,000 cases. These records are in the possession of Steven L. Schlossman and used with his permission.
126. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity, 105-120.
127. This difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 8.75; p < 0.01. Whites and African Americans are treated as a single group in order to isolate Hispanics as the independent variable.
128. For Hispanics among boys charged with offenses against persons, n = 15 / 28.
129. Using a single-factor ANOVA test, difference is statistically significant; p < 0.01.
130. This difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 14.24; p < 0.01. Put differently, Hispanics accounted for 62 percent (n = 16 / 26) of the boys whom police reported as belonging to gangs. On the concentration of mid-twentieth century Los Angeles gangs in Mexican-American barrio communities, see Joan W. Moore with Robert Garcia, Carlos Garcia, Luis Cerda, and Frank Valencia, Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs, and Prison in the Barrios of Los Angeles (Philadelphia, 1978).
131. For at least two accomplices, n = 11 / 28; for gangs, n = 7 / 28. On gang violence, see Eric C. Schneider, Vampires, Dragons, and Egyptian Kings: Youth Gangs in Postwar New York (Princeton, NJ, 1999).
132. Los Angeles County Juvenile Court Case Nos. 92548 and 92525. All names from these confidential records have been changed to protect the subjects' anonymity, but I have attempted to retain their ethnic distinctions.
133. This difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 7.14; p < 0.01.
134. N = 47 / 91. By contrast, the LAPD initiated only 26 percent of boys' arrests for other offenses (n = 52 / 197). The difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 17.60; p < 0.01.
135. Because the sources deal only with cases that led to petitions to court, they do not indicate how often the LAPD pulled over cars filled with adolescent boys who had done nothing wrong. Edward Escobar has argued that the LAPD routinely targeted Hispanic boys in automobiles for harassment and arrest. See Edward J. Escobar, "Zoot-Suiters and Cops: Chicano Youth and the Los Angeles Police Department during World War II," in The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness During World War II, ed. Lewis A. Erenberg and Susan E. Hirsch (Chicago, 1996), 284-312.
136. Los Angeles Case No. 92168. The state of California had raised the age at which boys could obtain learning permits and drivers' licenses from 14 to 16 in 1931. See LAPD, Annual Report (1933-34), 27; New York Times, January 14, 1940.
137. Scott L. Bottles, Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987), 92-94; James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, 1988), 140-145, 159-160.
138. Scott L. Bottles, Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987), 92-94; James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, 1988), 140-145, 159-160.
139. One important exception is Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent, 155-156. Schlossman suggests that, in the early years of Milwaukee Juvenile Court, short-term detention represented a "a comparatively safe children's jail," a new, if hidden, option in the sentencing of young offenders more appropriate than simple release but not so severe as "long-term committal to a reformatory" or "short-term sentencing to a county jail."
140. Cook County (IL) Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for the Fiscal Year 1919 (Chicago, 1920), 19. Prior to 1907, juvenile offenders had been detained in a converted house and barn managed by Juvenile Court Committee, a branch of the Chicago Women's Club and the predecessor to the Juvenile Protective Association. On the Detention Home, see Anne Meis Knupfer, "The Chicago Detention Home," in A Noble Social Experiment? The First 100 Years of Cook County Juvenile Court, 1899-1999, ed. Gwen Hoerr McNamee (Chicago, 1999), 52-59.
141. Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1918, 10-11; Jeter, Chicago Juvenile Court, 51-52
142. Chicago Police Department, Rules and Regulations (1924), 57; Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1918, 9. On the new building, see Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1923, 16.
143. Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1926, 64-77; Shaw and Myers, "Juvenile Delinquent," 680-81. Some boys of juvenile court age were also still held at the Cook County Jail in these years and even later. See Fred Gross, Detention and Prosecution of Children: Jail Detention and Criminal Prosecution of Children of Juvenile Court Age in Cook County, 1938-1942 (Chicago, 1946), 31.
144. Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1926, 64-77; Shaw and Myers, "Juvenile Delinquent," 680-81. Some boys of juvenile court age were also still held at the Cook County Jail in these years and even later. See Fred Gross, Detention and Prosecution of Children: Jail Detention and Criminal Prosecution of Children of Juvenile Court Age in Cook County, 1938-1942 (Chicago, 1946), 31.
145. Cook County Juvenile Court and Juvenile Detention Home, Annual Reports for 1926, 77.
146. Samuel R. Blake, Report on Conditions and Progress of the Juvenile Court of Los Angeles County, 1930-1933 (Los Angeles, 1934), 51.
147. N = 276 / 287. Calculated from Los Angeles Juvenile Court 1940 database.
148. Blake, Report on the Juvenile Court (1930-33), 51-52; Los Angeles Police Department, Annual Report of the Police Department, Fiscal Year 1936-37 (Los Angeles, 1937), 32; Florence Perrigo Van Sickle, "The Function of the Mental Hygiene Clinic at Juvenile Hall in Los Angeles, California," (M.S.W. thesis, University of Southern California, 1944), 20-37.
149. Blake, Report on the Juvenile Court (1930-33), 51-52; Los Angeles Police Department, Annual Report of the Police Department, Fiscal Year 1936-37 (Los Angeles, 1937), 32; Florence Perrigo Van Sickle, "The Function of the Mental Hygiene Clinic at Juvenile Hall in Los Angeles, California," (M.S.W. thesis, University of Southern California, 1944), 20-37.
150. Blake, Report on the Juvenile Court (1930-33), 51-52; Los Angeles Police Department, Annual Report of the Police Department, Fiscal Year 1936-37 (Los Angeles, 1937), 32; Florence Perrigo Van Sickle, "The Function of the Mental Hygiene Clinic at Juvenile Hall in Los Angeles, California," (M.S.W. thesis, University of Southern California, 1944), 20-37.
151. N = 174 / 287. Quotation from LAPD, Annual Report (1936-37), 32.
152. Calculated from Los Angeles Juvenile Court 1940 database.
153. Calculated from Los Angeles Juvenile Court 1940 database.
154. For boys accused of petty theft who were detained, n = 19 / 55. In contrast, 67 percent (n = 164 / 245) of boys petitioned to court for all other offenses were detained. The difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 19.81, p < 0.01. Calculated from Los Angeles Juvenile Court 1940 database.
155. For boys accused of burglary who were detained, n = 43 / 67. Thirty-four of the 67 boys accused of burglary were between age 10 and 14.
156. For burglars sent to County Jail, n = 7 / 67. For burglars sent to Juvenile Hall, n = 36 / 67.
157. This difference achieves statistical significance. Chi-square (1) = 11.05, p < 0.01.
158. Los Angeles Case No. 92000.
159. N = 222 / 279. In this sample, boys were considered cooperative if investigating officers from the LAPD or the County Probation Department described them so. In addition, 81 percent admitted their offenses in full (n = 233 / 288) and another 9 percent admitted them in part (n = 26 / 288).
160. Los Angeles Case No. 92788.
161. The police recommended detention for 42 of 57 boys labeled uncooperative. In contrast, they recommended detention for 129 of 222 boys labeled cooperative. This difference achieves statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 4.64; p < 0.05. Calculated from Los Angeles Juvenile Court 1940 database.
162. This difference does not achieve statistical significance; chi-square (1) = 1.55; p = 0.21.
163. Los Angeles Case No. 93760.