Representations of adolescence in the modern city: Voluntary provision and work in Nottingham and Saint-Etienne, 1890-1914

Journal of Family History

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 455-479

  Pomfret, David M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; EMPLOYMENT; ETHNOLOGY; FAMILY RELATION; FAMILY SIZE; FRANCE; HEALTH; HISTORY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; NUCLEAR FAMILY; PHYSIOLOGY; POLICY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; UNITED KINGDOM; URBAN POPULATION; VOLUNTARY WORKER;

ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR; ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; EMPLOYMENT; ENGLAND; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; FAMILY RELATIONS; FRANCE; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NUCLEAR FAMILY; PUBLIC POLICY; SOCIAL CHANGE; SOCIAL VALUES; URBAN HEALTH; URBAN POPULATION; VOLUNTARY WORKERS;

EID: 0040969003     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900102600402     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Municipalité de Paris, Fête de l'Adolescence: Offerte par la municipalité de Paris aux oeuvres post-scolaires laïques, le dimanche 30 juillet, 1899, aubois de boulogne (Paris: Librarie Française d'Editions d'Art, 1899), 9.
2. Kathleen Alaimo, "Adolescence, Gender and Class in Education Reform in France: The Development of Enseignement Primaire Supérieure, 1880-1910," French Historical Studies 18, no. 4 (1994): 1025-56; Patricia Meyer Spacks, The Adolescent Idea: Myths of Youth and the Adult Imagination (New York: Basic Books, 1981)
3. Kathleen Alaimo, "Adolescence, Gender and Class in Education Reform in France: The Development of Enseignement Primaire Supérieure, 1880-1910," French Historical Studies 18, no. 4 (1994): 1025-56; Patricia Meyer Spacks, The Adolescent Idea: Myths of Youth and the Adult Imagination (New York: Basic Books, 1981)
4. Justin O'Brien, The Novel of Adolescence in France (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1939), 17-18.
5. The Ligue d'Enseignement, established in 1866, strove to advance the cause of secular Republican education in France. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, the league began to turn its attention toward after-school clubs and societies.
6. Léon Bourgeois, L'Education de la démocratie française, discours prononcé de 1890 à 1896 (Paris: E. Cornély, 1897), 157; Jean Macé, quoted in Jacques Ion and Jean-Pierre Augustin, Des Loisirs et des jeunes (Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières, 1993), 23.
7. Léon Bourgeois, L'Education de la démocratie française, discours prononcé de 1890 à 1896 (Paris: E. Cornély, 1897), 157; Jean Macé, quoted in Jacques Ion and Jean-Pierre Augustin, Des Loisirs et des jeunes (Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières, 1993), 23.
8. Kathleen Alaimo, "Shaping Adolescence in the Popular Milieu: Social Policy, Reformers and French Youth 1870-1920," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 423.
9. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
10. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
11. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
12. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
13. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
14. Ibid., 421; John Davis, Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict (London/New Jersey: Athlone/Atlantic Highlands, 1990), 27, 84; Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Historical Descriptions and Prescriptions for Adolescence," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 331; Harry Hendrick, Images of Youth: Age, Class and the Male Youth Problem, 1880-1920 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1990), 133-48; J. F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America from 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); J. R. Wegs, "Working Class Adolescence in Austria, 1890-1930," Journal of Family History 17, no. 4 (1992): 439.
15. Five years later, the French pedagogue and inspector general of elementary education in France, Gabriel Compayré, provided a resume of the ideas of G. S. Hall. Mendousse's L'Ame de l'adolescent was published in the same year. In England, in 1911, J. W. Slaughter published a popular pedagogical aid condensing Hall's ideas. Gabriel Compayré, L'Adolescence, étude de psychologie et de pédagogie (Paris: P. Delapane, 1909); G. S. Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (New York: Appleton, 1904); G. S. Hall, Youth, Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton, 1906); J. W. Slaughter, The Adolescent (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911); P. Mendousse, L'Ame de l'adolescent (Paris: Alcan, 1909).
16. Five years later, the French pedagogue and inspector general of elementary education in France, Gabriel Compayré, provided a resume of the ideas of G. S. Hall. Mendousse's L'Ame de l'adolescent was published in the same year. In England, in 1911, J. W. Slaughter published a popular pedagogical aid condensing Hall's ideas. Gabriel Compayré, L'Adolescence, étude de psychologie et de pédagogie (Paris: P. Delapane, 1909); G. S. Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (New York: Appleton, 1904); G. S. Hall, Youth, Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton, 1906); J. W. Slaughter, The Adolescent (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911); P. Mendousse, L'Ame de l'adolescent (Paris: Alcan, 1909).
17. Five years later, the French pedagogue and inspector general of elementary education in France, Gabriel Compayré, provided a resume of the ideas of G. S. Hall. Mendousse's L'Ame de l'adolescent was published in the same year. In England, in 1911, J. W. Slaughter published a popular pedagogical aid condensing Hall's ideas. Gabriel Compayré, L'Adolescence, étude de psychologie et de pédagogie (Paris: P. Delapane, 1909); G. S. Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (New York: Appleton, 1904); G. S. Hall, Youth, Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton, 1906); J. W. Slaughter, The Adolescent (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911); P. Mendousse, L'Ame de l'adolescent (Paris: Alcan, 1909).
18. Five years later, the French pedagogue and inspector general of elementary education in France, Gabriel Compayré, provided a resume of the ideas of G. S. Hall. Mendousse's L'Ame de l'adolescent was published in the same year. In England, in 1911, J. W. Slaughter published a popular pedagogical aid condensing Hall's ideas. Gabriel Compayré, L'Adolescence, étude de psychologie et de pédagogie (Paris: P. Delapane, 1909); G. S. Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (New York: Appleton, 1904); G. S. Hall, Youth, Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton, 1906); J. W. Slaughter, The Adolescent (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911); P. Mendousse, L'Ame de l'adolescent (Paris: Alcan, 1909).
19. Five years later, the French pedagogue and inspector general of elementary education in France, Gabriel Compayré, provided a resume of the ideas of G. S. Hall. Mendousse's L'Ame de l'adolescent was published in the same year. In England, in 1911, J. W. Slaughter published a popular pedagogical aid condensing Hall's ideas. Gabriel Compayré, L'Adolescence, étude de psychologie et de pédagogie (Paris: P. Delapane, 1909); G. S. Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education (New York: Appleton, 1904); G. S. Hall, Youth, Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton, 1906); J. W. Slaughter, The Adolescent (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911); P. Mendousse, L'Ame de l'adolescent (Paris: Alcan, 1909).
20. M. Auguste Lemaïtre, La Vie mentale de l'adolescent et ses anomalies (Saint-Blaise, France: Foyer Solidariste, 1910); Marguerite Evard, L'Adolescente: Essai de psychologie experimentale (Paris: Fischbacher, 1914).
21. M. Auguste Lemaïtre, La Vie mentale de l'adolescent et ses anomalies (Saint-Blaise, France: Foyer Solidariste, 1910); Marguerite Evard, L'Adolescente: Essai de psychologie experimentale (Paris: Fischbacher, 1914).
22. John R. Gillis, Youth and History (New York: Academic Press, 1974), 171.
23. Hendrick, Images of Youth, 133-48.
24. J. R. Wegs, Growing Up Working-Class: Continuity and Change among Viennese Youth, 1890-1938 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1989).
25. Saint-Etienne was the seventh largest urban center in France in 1896. In 1881, Nottingham was the eighth largest agglomeration in England.
26. S. D. Chapman, "Economy, Industry, and Employment," in Centenary History of Nottingham, ed. J. V. Beckett (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997), 480-513; Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980), 43.
27. S. D. Chapman, "Economy, Industry, and Employment," in Centenary History of Nottingham, ed. J. V. Beckett (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997), 480-513; Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980), 43.
28. Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds., Child Labour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985 (Florence. Italy: UNICEF, 1996); Colin Heywood, Childhood in Nineteenth Century France: Work, Health and Education among the "Classes Populaires" (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working Class Childhood in Nineteenth Century England (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1994); Jean Noel Luc, La Petite enfance à l'école. XIXe-XXe siècles: Textes officiels relatifs aux sections enfantines de recherche pédagogiques (1829-1981) (Paris: Economica, 1982): Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989).
29. Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds., Child Labour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985 (Florence. Italy: UNICEF, 1996); Colin Heywood, Childhood in Nineteenth Century France: Work, Health and Education among the "Classes Populaires" (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working Class Childhood in Nineteenth Century England (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1994); Jean Noel Luc, La Petite enfance à l'école. XIXe-XXe siècles: Textes officiels relatifs aux sections enfantines de recherche pédagogiques (1829-1981) (Paris: Economica, 1982): Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989).
30. Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds., Child Labour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985 (Florence. Italy: UNICEF, 1996); Colin Heywood, Childhood in Nineteenth Century France: Work, Health and Education among the "Classes Populaires" (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working Class Childhood in Nineteenth Century England (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1994); Jean Noel Luc, La Petite enfance à l'école. XIXe-XXe siècles: Textes officiels relatifs aux sections enfantines de recherche pédagogiques (1829-1981) (Paris: Economica, 1982): Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989).
31. Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds., Child Labour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985 (Florence. Italy: UNICEF, 1996); Colin Heywood, Childhood in Nineteenth Century France: Work, Health and Education among the "Classes Populaires" (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working Class Childhood in Nineteenth Century England (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1994); Jean Noel Luc, La Petite enfance à l'école. XIXe-XXe siècles: Textes officiels relatifs aux sections enfantines de recherche pédagogiques (1829-1981) (Paris: Economica, 1982): Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989).
32. Hugh Cunningham and Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds., Child Labour in Historical Perspective, 1800-1985 (Florence. Italy: UNICEF, 1996); Colin Heywood, Childhood in Nineteenth Century France: Work, Health and Education among the "Classes Populaires" (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Eric Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working Class Childhood in Nineteenth Century England (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1994); Jean Noel Luc, La Petite enfance à l'école. XIXe-XXe siècles: Textes officiels relatifs aux sections enfantines de recherche pédagogiques (1829-1981) (Paris: Economica, 1982): Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989).
33. Nottinghamshire County Archive (NCA) CA.XA/1897/6, Nottingham Jubilee Committee, Statistics of the Children's Demonstration (Nottingham, UK: Nottingham Jubilee Committee. 1887), 3.
34. John Lewis Paton, John Brown Paton: A Biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1914), 308-9.
35. This was part of a broader movement to be found, earlier, in other large English urban centers. An important forerunner was the settlement movement, established by Canon Samuel A. Barnett in Whitechapel. Frank Dawes, Cry from the Street: The Boys' Club Movement in Britain from the 1850s to the Present Day (London: Wayland, 1975), 23-50.
36. Paton, John Brown Paton, 308-9.
37. Having received a circular from Smith in 1888, the North Nottingham Institute, led by J. A. Dixon and Reverend L. H. Gwynee, sought to provide a local branch. Nottinghamshire County Library (NCL), L36.881, The Boys' Brigade, 1st Nottingham (St. Andrew's Company), Centenary Year, 1888-1988 (Nottingham, UK: Boys' Brigade, 1988), 5.
38. NCL L36.881, Programme, "Fifty Years with the Boys' Brigade: History of Nottingham Battalion and Souvenir Programme of Jubilee Display, 1883-1933," 41.
39. Robert Baden Powell, Scouting for Bovs: A Handbook for Instruction in Good Citizenship (London: Boy Scout Movement, 1908).
40. Historians' rather casual use of the capacious phrase "youth movement" to refer to English uniformed groups has obscured the subtlety of providers' response to specific age groups (and in particular, adolescence).
41. Paton, John Brown Paton, 308.
42. Ibid., 320.
43. Studies by Lee Shai Weissbach and Gérard Cholvy have emphasized the role of the patronages as a tool of moral instruction and a means of transmitting middle-class values. Gérard Cholvy, "Patronages et œuvres de jeunesse dans la France contemporaine," Revue de l'Histoire de l'Eglise de France 58 (1982): 235-54; Pierre Pierrard, Enfants et jeunes ouvriers en france, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières, 1987), 201; Lee Shai Weissbach, "Oeuvre industrielle, oeuvre morale: Les Sociétés de Patronage of Nineteenth Century France," French Historical Studies 15 (1987): 99-120.
44. Studies by Lee Shai Weissbach and Gérard Cholvy have emphasized the role of the patronages as a tool of moral instruction and a means of transmitting middle-class values. Gérard Cholvy, "Patronages et œuvres de jeunesse dans la France contemporaine," Revue de l'Histoire de l'Eglise de France 58 (1982): 235-54; Pierre Pierrard, Enfants et jeunes ouvriers en france, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières, 1987), 201; Lee Shai Weissbach, "Oeuvre industrielle, oeuvre morale: Les Sociétés de Patronage of Nineteenth Century France," French Historical Studies 15 (1987): 99-120.
45. Studies by Lee Shai Weissbach and Gérard Cholvy have emphasized the role of the patronages as a tool of moral instruction and a means of transmitting middle-class values. Gérard Cholvy, "Patronages et œuvres de jeunesse dans la France contemporaine," Revue de l'Histoire de l'Eglise de France 58 (1982): 235-54; Pierre Pierrard, Enfants et jeunes ouvriers en france, XIXe-XXe siècle (Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières, 1987), 201; Lee Shai Weissbach, "Oeuvre industrielle, oeuvre morale: Les Sociétés de Patronage of Nineteenth Century France," French Historical Studies 15 (1987): 99-120.
46. Abbé Joseph Mabon, Histoire du patronage Saint-Joseph de Saint-Etienne (Saint-Etienne, France: E. Cannier, 1914).
47. Jean Merley, ed., Histoire de Saint-Etienne (Toulouse, France: Privat, 1990), 192.
48. Archives Départmentales de la Loire (ADL) 1M484, Report, Central Police Commissioner to Prefect of the Loire, "Le Sillon," 23 January 1909.
49. The Action Catholique des Jeunesses Françaises, established by Albert de Mun in 1886, had 60,000 members in 1905 and 140,000 in 1914. It aimed to provide recreational activities to create an elite of Catholic young people and used the motto "piety, study, action."
50. Richard Holt, Sport and Society in Modern France (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1981);
51. Robert Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics in Modern France: The Medical Concept of National Decline (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 328.
52. This evidence challenges Pierre Arnaud's suggestion that the new sporting movement owed much to "a backlash by those who had been exposed to the hegemony of militaristic sports." Pierre Arnaud, "Le Sport en marge ou le poids des pratiques conscriptives. Vitalité et densité du mouvement sportif associatif à Lyon et dans le département du Rhône (1853-1915)," in Les Athlètes de la république: Gymnastique, sport, et idéologie républicaine, 1870-1914, ed. Pierre Arnaud (Toulouse, France: Editions Privat, 1987), 101.
53. Johannes Merlat, L'Enseignement populaire dans le département de la Loire (Saint-Etienne, France: Societe de l'Imprimière de La Loire Républicaine, 1900), 55.
54. Ion and Augustin, Des Loisirs, 16.
55. The Scout movement, which developed in France from 1911, made little impact in Saint-Etienne before 1914.
56. In reference to the patronage, Joseph Mabon described how "the children's attendance became greater and greater." My italics. Mabon, Patronage Saint-Joseph, 5-6.
57. According to Nicole Verney-Carron, attendees were usually between eight and thirteen years old (i.e., of school age). Nicole Verney-Carron, "Le Ruban et le métal, recherches sur les élites économiques de la région stéphanoise au XIXe siècle (1815-1914)" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Lyon II, 1995), 271; Pierrard, Enfants, 199.
58. According to Nicole Verney-Carron, attendees were usually between eight and thirteen years old (i.e., of school age). Nicole Verney-Carron, "Le Ruban et le métal, recherches sur les élites économiques de la région stéphanoise au XIXe siècle (1815-1914)" (Ph.D. thesis, University of Lyon II, 1995), 271; Pierrard, Enfants, 199.
59. Only late in this period did it begin to extend its reach to a broader social range. ADL 1M486, Police Report, Mottié, Special Police Commissioner, "Reunion d'études mensuelles du groupe de l'association catholique des jeunesses française à Saint Jean Bonnefonds," 10 November 1912.
60. Alaimo, "Shaping Adolescence," 434.
61. Archives Municipales de Saint-Etienne (AMSE) 2Q49, Minutes, Meeting of Municipal Council of Saint-Etienne, Demand of Association Catholique des Oeuvres pour la Protection de la Jeune Fille for Recognition as a Public Utility, 28 August 1924.
62. Rachel G. Fuchs, "Morality and Poverty: Public Welfare for Mothers in Paris, 1870-1900," French History 2, no. 3 (1988): 298-301; Rachel G. Fuchs, Abandoned Children: Foundlings and Child Welfare in Nineteenth Century France (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984).
63. Rachel G. Fuchs, "Morality and Poverty: Public Welfare for Mothers in Paris, 1870-1900," French History 2, no. 3 (1988): 298-301; Rachel G. Fuchs, Abandoned Children: Foundlings and Child Welfare in Nineteenth Century France (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984).
64. AMSE 4R15, Letter, President of Espérance, to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 9 June 1891.
65. AMSE 4R4, Statutes, L'Intrépide, 20 July 1909.
66. The activities of Saint-Etienne's Grand'Eglise cercles only began to attract police attention as late as 1912. Before this time, only the groups in Roanne and Lyon had come to the attention of the police. ADL 1M485, Police Report, Special Police Commissioner (Police des Chemins de Fer), 6 July 1912.
67. This accords with Michelle Perrot's briefly stated claim that in the late nineteenth century workers "spoke indifferently about 'young people' [jeunes gens] … never of 'adolescents'" and that those under age twenty were "barely distinguishable" in this discourse. Michelle Perrot, Les Ouvriers en grève: France 1871-1890 (Paris/La Haye: Mouton, 1974), 313-14.
68. AMSE 4R3, Letter, Tardy, Société Amicale, Velocipédique, et Athlétique, to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, April 1903.
69. AMSE 4R3, Letter, Gressin, President, Star Club Stéphanois, to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 30 August 1911.
70. AMSE 2R13, Letter, Manchon, President, Oeuvres Post Scolaires d'Enseignement Scolaire, to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 18 April 1911.
71. In 1915, the term "youth" (jeunesse) was used by the prefect of the Loire to refer to young people between thirteen and eighteen. In a note, the schools inspector of the Loire informed his colleague that "I wrote to all the mayors of the department to ask them to employ all of their patriotic enthusiasm to get the largest possible number of young people [jeunes gens] between thirteen and eighteen years to join the military preparation societies." AMSE 4R16, Letter, Prefect of the Loire to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 11 January 1915; ADL T684, Minutes, School Inspector of the Loire to Elementary School Inspector of Saint-Etienne, 19 January 1915.
72. "Juvenile Employment: A Nottingham Social Advisory Committee," Nottingham Guardian, 17 January 1911, 10.
73. NCA, City of Nottingham, Education Committee, Report of the Education Committee as to the Education (Choice of Employment) Act, 1910, 3 March 1913.
74. Duncan Gray, Nottingham through 500 years: A History of Town Government, 2d ed. (Nottingham, UK: Nottingham City, 1960), 204.
75. NCA, City of Nottingham, Health Committee, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health, 1938, 18.
76. Peter Wyncoll, The Nottingham Labour Movement, 1880-1939 (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1985), 33-76.
77. The Education Act of 1870 was followed with supplementary legislation making elementary education compulsory in 1880 and free in 1891. Through the Ferry Laws of 1881 and 1882, the Republic established the legislation necessary to create a compulsory, free, and secular system.
78. A spate of books and articles was published on the subject between 1900 and 1914. Barclay Baron, The Growing Generation: A Study of Working Boys and Girls in Our Cities (London: Student Christian Movement, 1911); O. Jocelyn Dunlop, English Apprenticeship and Child Labour, A History (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Frederic H. Keeling, Child Labour in the UK: A Study of the Development and Administration of the Law Relating to the Employment of Children (London: P. S. King and Son, 1914); R. H. Tawney, "The Economics of Boy Labour," Economic Journal (1909): 517-37.
79. A spate of books and articles was published on the subject between 1900 and 1914. Barclay Baron, The Growing Generation: A Study of Working Boys and Girls in Our Cities (London: Student Christian Movement, 1911); O. Jocelyn Dunlop, English Apprenticeship and Child Labour, A History (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Frederic H. Keeling, Child Labour in the UK: A Study of the Development and Administration of the Law Relating to the Employment of Children (London: P. S. King and Son, 1914); R. H. Tawney, "The Economics of Boy Labour," Economic Journal (1909): 517-37.
80. A spate of books and articles was published on the subject between 1900 and 1914. Barclay Baron, The Growing Generation: A Study of Working Boys and Girls in Our Cities (London: Student Christian Movement, 1911); O. Jocelyn Dunlop, English Apprenticeship and Child Labour, A History (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Frederic H. Keeling, Child Labour in the UK: A Study of the Development and Administration of the Law Relating to the Employment of Children (London: P. S. King and Son, 1914); R. H. Tawney, "The Economics of Boy Labour," Economic Journal (1909): 517-37.
81. A spate of books and articles was published on the subject between 1900 and 1914. Barclay Baron, The Growing Generation: A Study of Working Boys and Girls in Our Cities (London: Student Christian Movement, 1911); O. Jocelyn Dunlop, English Apprenticeship and Child Labour, A History (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Frederic H. Keeling, Child Labour in the UK: A Study of the Development and Administration of the Law Relating to the Employment of Children (London: P. S. King and Son, 1914); R. H. Tawney, "The Economics of Boy Labour," Economic Journal (1909): 517-37.
82. In England, there remained around 343,000 apprentices in the early twentieth century, but the apprenticeship scheme was widely perceived as being in decline. Charles More, Skill and the English Working Class, 1870-1914 (London: Croom Helm, 1980), 99-100.
83. NCA CACM91/10, Watch Committee Minute Book, 28 January 1891, 41-42.
84. "Moral Training in Schools," Nottingham Daily Guardian, 3 July 1902, 2.
85. Paton, John Brown Paton, 308-9.
86. Gérard Noirel, Workers in French Society in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Oxford, UK: Berg, 1990), 114.
87. In 1888, 34.7 percent of all males and 34.0 percent of all females were underage twenty as opposed to 30.2 percent and 28.0 percent of males and females, respectively, in 1911.
88. Jean-Charles Asselain, Histoire économique de la révolution industrielle à la première guerre mondiale (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale/Dalloz, 1985), 111.
89. AMSE 7C1, "L'Esprit de famille," Le Réveil des Tisseurs 6 (March 1899), 1.
90. This culture was frequently represented in song, such as in Benjamin Ledin's "Enfant quand tes yeux." Benjamin Ledin, Chansons passementières et poésies stéphanoises (Saint-Etienne, France: P. Lacroix, 1927), 62.
91. ADL 88M15, Letter, Conseil Générale de la Loire to Divisional Employment Inspector, (15th circonscription), "Enfants mineurs dans l'industrie," 1890.
92. This was also the case in Lyon. During the late nineteenth century, the response of the household silk weavers to depression conditions was to increase the employment of family labor. George J. Sheridan, "Household and Craft in an Industrializing Economy: The Case of the Silk Weavers of Lyons," in Consciousness and Class Experience in Nineteenth Century Europe, ed. John Merriman (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979), 107-28.
93. The minimum working age for children was set at thirteen by the law of 1892 relating to the Work of Children, Female Minors, and Women in Industrial Establishments. A new legal category, the "female minor" (fille mineure), was introduced to prevent females under eighteen from working more than eleven hours per day. In 1900, the law of March 30 limited young people under eighteen to a ten-hour day. Alaimo, "Shaping Adolescence," 429; Heywood, Childhood.
94. The minimum working age for children was set at thirteen by the law of 1892 relating to the Work of Children, Female Minors, and Women in Industrial Establishments. A new legal category, the "female minor" (fille mineure), was introduced to prevent females under eighteen from working more than eleven hours per day. In 1900, the law of March 30 limited young people under eighteen to a ten-hour day. Alaimo, "Shaping Adolescence," 429; Heywood, Childhood.
95. A number of rights asserting the authority of the family over those between ages thirteen and eighteen were encoded in legislation in the late nineteenth century. The establishment of a system of work books delivered to children on their thirteenth birthday under the law of 1892 enshrined the respect of the Republic for the father and strengthened his influence over the career direction of his children. Fathers also enjoyed the right to imprison their sons and daughters for up to a month before age sixteen and for a longer period between age sixteen and eighteen. Until the late 1890s, parental permission was required to marry before age twenty-five.
96. This legislation defending the authority of the family over its young in France contrasted with legislation passed in England during the same period that began to strengthen the position of the young vis-à-vis their parents or guardians. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed, 201-4.
97. The overwhelming majority of female candidates between ages sixteen and twenty-two in the contest to become the city's Muse du Peuple still lived with their parents. AMSE 1I15, Police Reports, Fête de la Muse du Peuple; Janet Jacobs, "A Community of French Workers: Social Life and Labour Conflicts in the Stéphanois Region, 1890-1914" (D.Phil, University of Oxford, 1974), 79; Leslie Page Moch, Paths to the City: Regional Migration in Nineteenth Century (Beverly Hills. CA: Sage, 1983), 131-32.
98. The overwhelming majority of female candidates between ages sixteen and twenty-two in the contest to become the city's Muse du Peuple still lived with their parents. AMSE 1I15, Police Reports, Fête de la Muse du Peuple; Janet Jacobs, "A Community of French Workers: Social Life and Labour Conflicts in the Stéphanois Region, 1890-1914" (D.Phil, University of Oxford, 1974), 79; Leslie Page Moch, Paths to the City: Regional Migration in Nineteenth Century (Beverly Hills. CA: Sage, 1983), 131-32.
99. Georges Duby and Armand Wallon, eds., Histoire de la France rurale, vol. 3, Apogée et crise de la civilisation paysanne, 1789-1914 (Paris: Seuil, 1976), 400-401, 472-76; Roger Price, A Social History of Nineteenth Century France (London: Hutchinson, 1987), 48, 88-90; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976), 278-91.
100. Georges Duby and Armand Wallon, eds., Histoire de la France rurale, vol. 3, Apogée et crise de la civilisation paysanne, 1789-1914 (Paris: Seuil, 1976), 400-401, 472-76; Roger Price, A Social History of Nineteenth Century France (London: Hutchinson, 1987), 48, 88-90; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976), 278-91.
101. Georges Duby and Armand Wallon, eds., Histoire de la France rurale, vol. 3, Apogée et crise de la civilisation paysanne, 1789-1914 (Paris: Seuil, 1976), 400-401, 472-76; Roger Price, A Social History of Nineteenth Century France (London: Hutchinson, 1987), 48, 88-90; Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976), 278-91.
102. For 1911, Maxime Perrin calculated that 80 percent of the population of Saint-Etienne came from the city, a nearby commune, or the rural hinterland. Claude Crétin, "La Population stéphanoise," in Un Grande encyclopedie du Forez et les communes de la Loire, vol. 2, La Ville de Saint-Etienne, ed. Gilbert Gardes (Saint-Etienne, France: Editions Horvath, 1984), 43; Maxime Perrin, La Région industrielle de Saint-Etienne: Un Type de la vie industrielle en France (Tours, France: Arrault et Cie., 1937), 376-77.
103. For 1911, Maxime Perrin calculated that 80 percent of the population of Saint-Etienne came from the city, a nearby commune, or the rural hinterland. Claude Crétin, "La Population stéphanoise," in Un Grande encyclopedie du Forez et les communes de la Loire, vol. 2, La Ville de Saint-Etienne, ed. Gilbert Gardes (Saint-Etienne, France: Editions Horvath, 1984), 43; Maxime Perrin, La Région industrielle de Saint-Etienne: Un Type de la vie industrielle en France (Tours, France: Arrault et Cie., 1937), 376-77.
104. Jean Merley, ed., Histoire de Saint-Etienne (Toulouse, France: Privat, 1990), 206.
105. Yves Lequin, Les Ouvriers de la région lyonnaise 1848-1914 (Lyon, France: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1977); Elinor Accampo, Industrialization, Family Life and Class Relations: Saint Chamond, 1815-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
106. Yves Lequin, Les Ouvriers de la région lyonnaise 1848-1914 (Lyon, France: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1977); Elinor Accampo, Industrialization, Family Life and Class Relations: Saint Chamond, 1815-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
107. In 1898, of the 602,000 adolescents under age eighteen working in industry and commerce nationally, 540,000 had no contract.
108. AMSE 7C1, "De l'apprentissage," Le Réveil des Tisseurs 159 (April 1912), 2.
109. Ibid.
110. This suggestion is given additional weight by Yves Lequin's observation that perceptions of crisis in artisanal trades seemed not to correlate with economic reality. Yves Lequin, "Apprenticeship in Nineteenth-Century France: A Continuing Tradition or a Break with the Past?" in Work in France, ed. Steven Kaplan and Cynthia Koepp (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 457-74.
111. As late as 1929, the mouthpiece of the ribbon-weaving industry, the Réveil des Tïsseurs, advocated "a great movement … in favor of apprenticeship, an essential culture which makes the children of the people into men." AMSE 7C1, "Apprentissage et syndicalisme," Le Réveil des Tisseurs 52 (June 1929), 1.
112. While segregation was never rigid in Saint-Etienne, professional differences often had their spatial corollary. In contrast, Nottingham, according to one commentator, was "unique in having all these divisions hopelessly mixed up. It is a city without beginning or end. Public buildings, private dwellings and factories are mixed up in endless confusion." Richard Iliffe and Wilfred Bagguley, Victorian Nottingham: A Story in Pictures 1837-1901, vol. 20 (Nottingham, UK: Nottingham Historical Film Unit, 1983), 86.
113. Bars and cafés in the city tended to be identified with specific professional groups, such as the miners in Le Soleil or the glassworkers in La Verrerie and Richelandière. In the boules, rifle-shooting, cycling, and sarbacane clubs attached to these meeting places, miners, arms manufacturers, glassworkers, and metalworkers socialized. In keeping with dominant work practices, they often gathered in "teams." The continuing practice of professional inheritance meant that such gatherings might often include more than one generation of the same family. Jacobs, "Community of French Workers," 83-87.
114. The local press published reports of the apache activity in Paris, but criminality among children rather than adolescents was identified as a more pertinent local problem. Michelle Perrot, "Dans la France de la belle époque: 'Les Apaches,' premières bandes de jeunes," in Cahiers Jussieu: Les Marginaux et les exclus dans l'histoire (Paris: Cahiers Jussieu, 1978), 387-407; "Enfants meurtriers," Le Mémorial, 9 September 1906.
115. The local press published reports of the apache activity in Paris, but criminality among children rather than adolescents was identified as a more pertinent local problem. Michelle Perrot, "Dans la France de la belle époque: 'Les Apaches,' premières bandes de jeunes," in Cahiers Jussieu: Les Marginaux et les exclus dans l'histoire (Paris: Cahiers Jussieu, 1978), 387-407; "Enfants meurtriers," Le Mémorial, 9 September 1906.
116. The cohesion, consensus, and cooperation that characterized the voluntary sector in Nottingham were strong enough to overcome denominational differences. John V. Beckett and Brian Tolley, "Church, Chapel and School," in A Centenary History of Nottingham, ed. J. V. Beckett (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997), 368.
117. As Frank Prochaska states, "No country on earth can lay claim to a greater philanthropic-tradition than Great Britain." The diffuse and changing notion of social citizenship at the heart of this tradition had been constructed and reconstructed in England since the mid-nineteenth century. Helen E. Meller, Leisure and the Changing City (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1976), 74, 77; Frank Prochaska, "Philanthropy," in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750-1950, vol. 3, Social Agencies and Institutions, ed. F.M.L. Thompson (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 357.
118. As Frank Prochaska states, "No country on earth can lay claim to a greater philanthropic-tradition than Great Britain." The diffuse and changing notion of social citizenship at the heart of this tradition had been constructed and reconstructed in England since the mid-nineteenth century. Helen E. Meller, Leisure and the Changing City (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1976), 74, 77; Frank Prochaska, "Philanthropy," in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750-1950, vol. 3, Social Agencies and Institutions, ed. F.M.L. Thompson (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 357.
119. J. D. Chambers, "Victorian Nottingham," Transactions of the Thoroton Society 63 (1959): 17.
120. This context contrasts markedly with that described by Elinor Accampo in relation to Saint-Chamond. The voluntary sector of this town, a near neighbor of Saint-Etienne, was dominated by an extremely homogeneous patronat committed to shared values of Catholicism and Legitimism. Thus, Saint-Chamond "retained a reputation for being particularly charitable." As Accampo notes, this approach was "unusual, particularly for the Stéphanois industrial basin after 1850." Accampo, Industrialization, 142, 145.
121. Isabelle von Bueltzingsloewen and Denis Pelletier, La Charité en pratique: Chrétiens français et allemands sur le terrain social, XIXe-XXe siècles (Strasbourg, France: Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg, 1999); Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec, eds., Le Social dans la ville en France et en Europe, 1750-1914 (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières, 1996).
122. Isabelle von Bueltzingsloewen and Denis Pelletier, La Charité en pratique: Chrétiens français et allemands sur le terrain social, XIXe-XXe siècles (Strasbourg, France: Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg, 1999); Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec, eds., Le Social dans la ville en France et en Europe, 1750-1914 (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières, 1996).
123. In contrast, Steven Beaudoin's study of Bordeaux has indicated that a nonsectarian "spirit of co-operation and public obligation prevailed" in the city, which united public officials and private associations. Though he admits that "we know too little of the factors which fostered cooperation," Beaudoin cites Paris, Marseille, and Saint-Chamond in support of his claim that elites in other large urban centers acted in a similar fashion. Conversely, the evidence from Saint-Etienne underlines the importance of taking the specific urban cultural context into consideration in explaining cooperation or its absence. It might also be noted that, of the cities cited by Beaudoin, Marseille and Saint-Chamond were unusual in terms of the high degree of political homogeneity that characterized their urban elites (radical socialist and ultramontane Catholic, respectively). The anglophile traditions of Bordeaux's elites and the unusually "important and powerful Protestant, republican minority" at their heart would seem to be key areas worthy of further study in determining the grounds on which compromise was worked out. Steven M. Beaudoin, "'Without Belonging to Public Service': Charities, the State, and Civil Society in Third Republic Bordeaux, 1870-1914," Journal of Social History (spring 1998): 675-77, 689, 691.
124. In relation to the patronat's disinterest in its workforce. Alphonse Merrheim, leader of the Confederation Générale du Travail, perceived that "it is in the Loire that the workers suffer most. One must not forget that the patronat of the Loire is arrogant, intransigent … not only in spirit but also in the equipping of the workplace, imposing enormous and unequalled levels of tiredness on workers and paying them the lowest wages in France." Alphonse Merrheim, quoted in Etienne Fournial, ed., Saint-Etienne: Histoire de la ville et ses habitants (Saint-Etienne, France: Horvath, 1976), 271.
125. Timothy Smith's study of public and private assistance in Lyon highlights the extent to which philanthropy was a highly charged political issue in large French cities throughout this period. Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec have also demonstrated how the political complexion of local rivals for influence was inscribed on the system of social politics. Timothy B. Smith, "Republicans, Catholics and Social Reform: Lyon, 1870-1920." French History 12, no. 3 (1998): 246-75; Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec, "Les Politiques sociales urbaines, fin XVIIIe siècle-début XXe siècles," in Le Social dans la ville en France et en Europe, 1750-1914, ed. Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières, 1996), 25.
126. Timothy Smith's study of public and private assistance in Lyon highlights the extent to which philanthropy was a highly charged political issue in large French cities throughout this period. Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec have also demonstrated how the political complexion of local rivals for influence was inscribed on the system of social politics. Timothy B. Smith, "Republicans, Catholics and Social Reform: Lyon, 1870-1920." French History 12, no. 3 (1998): 246-75; Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec, "Les Politiques sociales urbaines, fin XVIIIe siècle-début XXe siècles," in Le Social dans la ville en France et en Europe, 1750-1914, ed. Jacques-Guy Petit and Yannick Marec (Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières, 1996), 25.
127. Nicole Verney-Carron has illustrated the tardiness with which secondary and further education developed in Saint-Etienne before 1914. The transformation of the old Royal college into a boys' lycée (which had begun in 1841) was completed only in 1892. The local Lycée de Jeunes Filles was established only in September 1895. This contrasted with Nottingham, which had four higher grade schools in 1891 and was the birthplace of the national Recreative Evening Schools Association. The latter's educational inheritance helped to disseminate the understanding of adolescence as a time of extended dependency and paved the way for its cross-class expansion thereafter. Verney-Carron, "Le Ruban," 426.
128. Between 1893 and 1906, three mayors emerged from the ranks of the textile industry. They were Barralon, a braid manufacturer (who served from October 1893 to January 1895); Chavanon, a ribbon merchant (January 1895 to May 1900); and Ledin, a ribbon weaver (May 1900 to July 1906).
129. AMSE 6F1, A. Fonfroide, ed. (Association Générale des Commerçants de la Loire), Rapport sur le projét de loi déposé par M. M. Saurien et Doumergue: Deuxième grand réunion des employers et commerçants petits et moyennes de la région du centre et du sud-est, Saint-Etienne, 8 septembre 1907 (Saint-Etienne, France: Loire Républicaine, 1907).
130. AMSE 4R15, Letter, Committee of Athlétic Club Olympiques Stéphanois to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 22 August 1902.
131. Steven Beaudoin cites the willingness of Bordeaux public officials and private associations to collaborate in providing vacation daycare centers for children as evidence of the general and underlying capacity of French volunteers and public officials to overcome sectarian divisions. However, it is worth noting that while agreement may have been reached on other matters, where children's services were concerned providers were unable to set aside their differences. In spite of the Pastor Comte's efforts, the first national congress of the colonies de vacances produced deadlock and the eventual duplication of holiday camp services along sectarian lines. Beaudoin, "Without Belonging," 680; AMSE 22F55, Report, First National Congress of the Colonies de Vacances, Saint-Etienne, June 1904.
132. Tir de l'Observatoire, for example, which declared the intention to "develop the art of shooting amongst our valiant French youth (jeunesse)" taught those of school age. AMSE 4R3, Letter, Committee of Tir de L'Observatoire to Mayor of Saint-Etienne, 22 April 1914.
133. Michael Rosenthal, The Character Factory: Baden-Powell and the Origin of the Boy Scout Movement (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 235.
134. "Training the Boys," Nottingham Evening Post, 1 October 1913, 4.
135. This was a city in which the erreur patriotique of the battalions scolaires had been perpetuated for five years longer than in Lyon. Even in 1894, the battalions were reluctantly given up. Colette Canty, Saint-Etienne autrefois: Images retrouvés (Le Couteau, France: Horvath, 1985), 131.
136. In 1891, the Tir du Soleil society spoke of "the keenness of the pupils of our schools who come each year to visit our rifle range." ADL 32Msup2, Letter, President, Tir du Soleil to Prefect of the Loire, 27 February 1891.
137. Maurice Crubellier, L'Enfance et la jeunesse dans la société française, 1800-1850 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1979), 198.
138. The period of service was reduced to two years from three in March 1905 and extended again to three years in August 1913.
139. According to Yolande Cohen, it was believed that "in performing his military service the young man gained civic rights and became an adult." Young men joined up at age twenty or twenty-one and left at age twenty-two or twenty-three. Yolande Cohen, Les Jeunes, le socialisme, et la guerre: Histoire des mouvements de jeunesse en France (Paris: Editions Harmattan, 1989), 28.
140. M. Fournier, Le Roman d'un gamin (Paris: Librarie Gédalge, 1901).
141. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile, ou, de l'éducation (1762; reprint, Paris: Garnier, 1999).