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Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 61-80

Inclusion versus exclusion: Political institutions and welfare expenditures

(1)  Crepaz, Markus M L a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 0040944393     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422106     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (78)

References (99)
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    • New York: Cambridge University Press
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    • On the political economy of welfare expression
    • David Cameron, "The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 1243-61; Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); John Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London: Macmillan, 1979); Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, "Welfare Spending in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 1950-1980," American Journal of Sociology, 93 (1988), 1424-56; Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, Age, Class, Politics, and the Welfare State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Alexander Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "On the Political Economy of Welfare Expression," Comparative Political Studies, 17 (1984), 81-119; Alexander Hicks, Duane Swank, and Martin Ambuhl, "Welfare Expansion Revisited: Policy Routines and Their Mediation by Party, Class, and Crisis, 1957-1982," European Journal of Political Research, 17 (1989), 401-30; Alexander M. Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "Politics, Institutions, and Welfare Spending in Industrialized Democracies, 1960-82," American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 658-74; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (London: Polity Press, 1990).
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    • Hicks, A.1    Swank, D.H.2
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    • Welfare expansion revisited: Policy routines and their mediation by party, class, and crisis, 1957-1982
    • David Cameron, "The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 1243-61; Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); John Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London: Macmillan, 1979); Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, "Welfare Spending in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 1950-1980," American Journal of Sociology, 93 (1988), 1424-56; Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, Age, Class, Politics, and the Welfare State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Alexander Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "On the Political Economy of Welfare Expression," Comparative Political Studies, 17 (1984), 81-119; Alexander Hicks, Duane Swank, and Martin Ambuhl, "Welfare Expansion Revisited: Policy Routines and Their Mediation by Party, Class, and Crisis, 1957-1982," European Journal of Political Research, 17 (1989), 401-30; Alexander M. Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "Politics, Institutions, and Welfare Spending in Industrialized Democracies, 1960-82," American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 658-74; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (London: Polity Press, 1990).
    • (1989) European Journal of Political Research , vol.17 , pp. 401-430
    • Hicks, A.1    Swank, D.2    Ambuhl, M.3
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    • Politics, institutions, and welfare spending in industrialized democracies, 1960-82
    • David Cameron, "The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 1243-61; Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); John Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London: Macmillan, 1979); Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, "Welfare Spending in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 1950-1980," American Journal of Sociology, 93 (1988), 1424-56; Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, Age, Class, Politics, and the Welfare State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Alexander Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "On the Political Economy of Welfare Expression," Comparative Political Studies, 17 (1984), 81-119; Alexander Hicks, Duane Swank, and Martin Ambuhl, "Welfare Expansion Revisited: Policy Routines and Their Mediation by Party, Class, and Crisis, 1957-1982," European Journal of Political Research, 17 (1989), 401-30; Alexander M. Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "Politics, Institutions, and Welfare Spending in Industrialized Democracies, 1960-82," American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 658-74; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (London: Polity Press, 1990).
    • (1992) American Political Science Review , vol.86 , pp. 658-674
    • Hicks, A.M.1    Swank, D.H.2
  • 9
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    • London: Polity Press
    • David Cameron, "The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis," American Political Science Review, 72 (1978), 1243-61; Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); John Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London: Macmillan, 1979); Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, "Welfare Spending in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 1950-1980," American Journal of Sociology, 93 (1988), 1424-56; Fred C. Pampel and John B. Williamson, Age, Class, Politics, and the Welfare State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Alexander Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "On the Political Economy of Welfare Expression," Comparative Political Studies, 17 (1984), 81-119; Alexander Hicks, Duane Swank, and Martin Ambuhl, "Welfare Expansion Revisited: Policy Routines and Their Mediation by Party, Class, and Crisis, 1957-1982," European Journal of Political Research, 17 (1989), 401-30; Alexander M. Hicks and Duane H. Swank, "Politics, Institutions, and Welfare Spending in Industrialized Democracies, 1960-82," American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 658-74; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (London: Polity Press, 1990).
    • (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism
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    • Esping-Andersen, p. 22
    • Esping-Andersen, p. 22.
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    • The perils of presidentialisme
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
    • (1993) The Global Resurgence of Democracy
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    • The virtues of parliamentarism
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
    • (1993) The Global Resurgence of Democracy
    • Linz, J.1
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    • Comparing democratic systems
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
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    • Constitutional choices for new democracies
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
    • (1993) The Global Resurgence of Democracy
    • Lijphart, A.1
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    • The centrality of political culture
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
    • (1993) The Global Resurgence of Democracy
    • Lipset, S.M.1
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    • PR and democratic statecraft
    • Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press
    • For reasons of space I will not review the main arguments. Particularly useful are Juan Linz, "The Perils of Presidentialisme"; Juan Linz, "The Virtues of Parliamentarism"; Donald L. Horowitz, "Comparing Democratic Systems"; Arend Lijphart, "Constitutional Choices for New Democracies"; Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Centrality of Political Culture"; and Quentin L. Quade, "PR and Democratic Statecraft"; all in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
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    • Weaver and Rockman, p. 459.
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    • A rational choice perspective on congressional norms
    • For a dissenting view, see Barry Weingast, "A Rational Choice Perspective on Congressional Norms," American Journal of Political Science, 23 (1979), 245-63. He argues that, where simple majorities are less likely to form, all-inclusive coalitions pass bigger spending bills.
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    • (1994) Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics , vol.170 , pp. 175
    • Moe, T.M.1    Caldwell, M.2
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    • note
    • In some more developed welfare regimes, such as Sweden, Norway, and Austria, individuals are even more emancipated from work by high benefits for a broad variety of contingencies, including sickness, maternity, parenthood (for father and mother), education, trade union and related activities, and vacation. See Esping-Andersen.
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    • Social democracy, christian democracy, constitutional structure, and the welfare state
    • Evelyne Huber, Charles Ragin, and John D. Stephens, "Social Democracy, Christian Democracy, Constitutional Structure, and the Welfare State," American Journal of Sociology, 99 (1993), 711-49.
    • (1993) American Journal of Sociology , vol.99 , pp. 711-749
    • Huber, E.1    Ragin, C.2    Stephens, J.D.3
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    • Huber, Ragin, and Stephens, p. 722
    • Huber, Ragin, and Stephens, p. 722.
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    • Democracies: Forms, performance, and constitutional engineering
    • delivered in Leiden, Netherlands
    • Initially, it may take longer to agree on policies, but, once consensus has been reached, implementation should be less frustrating than in majoritarian, winner-take-all constitutional systems that systematically exclude important political interests. "Policies supported by a broad consensus are more likely to be successfully carried out and to remain on course than policies imposed by a 'decisive' government against the wishes of important sectors of society." Arend Lijphart, "Democracies: Forms, Performance, and Constitutional Engineering," Stein Rokkan Lecture, delivered in Leiden, Netherlands, 1993, p. 10.
    • (1993) Stein Rokkan Lecture , pp. 10
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    • Arend Lijphart, Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 4.
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    • Arend Lijphart and Markus M. L. Crepaz, "Corporatism and Consensus Democracy in Eighteen Countries: Conceptual and Empirical Linkages," British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991), 235-46.
    • (1991) British Journal of Political Science , vol.21 , pp. 235-246
    • Lijphart, A.1    Crepaz, M.M.L.2
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    • Esping-Andersen, p. 52.
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    • Huber, J.D.1    Powell G.B., Jr.2
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    • Goodin, p. 340
    • Goodin, p. 340.
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    • Political institutions and satisfaction with democracy: A cross-national analysis of consensus and majoritarian systems
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    • Anderson, C.J.1    Guillory, C.A.2
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    • note
    • Effective refers to the ability of the government to "get things done," which is generally considered to be higher in parliamentary systems than in presidential ones. The fusion between the legislative and the executive was described by Walter Bagehot as "the efficient secret."
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    • Vogel, p. 269
    • Vogel, p. 269.
  • 47
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    • note
    • A typical example is Britain, where neither of the two leading parties has commanded a majority of popular votes since 1935 although they alternately commanded legislative majorities, a result of the first-past-the-post electoral system.
  • 48
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    • Consensus versus majoritarian democracy: Political institutions and their impact in macroeconomic performance and industrial disputes
    • Markus M. L. Crepaz, "Consensus versus Majoritarian Democracy: Political Institutions and Their Impact in Macroeconomic Performance and Industrial Disputes," Comparative Political Studies, 29 (1996), 4-26.
    • (1996) Comparative Political Studies , vol.29 , pp. 4-26
    • Crepaz, M.M.L.1
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    • London: Wigram
    • Samuel E. Finer, Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform (London: Wigram, 1975); and Samuel E. Finer, The Changing British Party System, 1945-1979 (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1980).
    • (1975) Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform
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    • Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute
    • Samuel E. Finer, Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform (London: Wigram, 1975); and Samuel E. Finer, The Changing British Party System, 1945-1979 (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1980).
    • (1980) The Changing British Party System, 1945-1979
    • Finer, S.E.1
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    • Moe and Caldwell, p. 177
    • Moe and Caldwell, p. 177.
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    • Why government grows (and grows) in a democracy
    • Allan H. Meltzer and Scott F. Richard, "Why Government Grows (and Grows) in a Democracy," Public Interest, 52 (1978), 117.
    • (1978) Public Interest , vol.52 , pp. 117
    • Meltzer, A.H.1    Richard, S.F.2
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    • note
    • Meltzer and Richard, p. 117, argue that the extension of the franchise is always in the interest of voters with incomes below the median because the spread of the franchise increases the number and proportion of voters who favor redistribution.
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    • New York: Cambridge University Press
    • Gary Cox, The Efficient Secret (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
    • (1987) The Efficient Secret
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    • International Labor Organization, Cost of Social Security (Geneva: ILO, selected editions).
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    • note
    • The decommodification score is based on three types of welfare expenditures: pensions, sickness, and unemployment. Three elements were central for the compilation of the scores: the prohibitiveness of conditions for eligibility, the strength of built-in disincentives (such as waiting days for cash benefits), and the degree to which benefits approximate normal expected earnings levels. Then, the overall decommodification scores were weighted by the percent of the relevant population covered by the social security program. For a more detailed description of these measures, see Esping-Andersen, p. 54. The decommodification scores refer to the year 1980.
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    • Lijphart and Crepaz
    • Lijphart and Crepaz.
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    • Welfare spending
    • Ibid, John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Ibid; Pampel and Williamson, "Welfare Spending"; Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Labor Quiescence, and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 143-78.
    • (1984) Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism , pp. 143-178
    • Pampel1    Williamson2
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    • Ibid, John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Ibid; Pampel and Williamson, "Welfare Spending"; Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Labor Quiescence, and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 143-78.
    • (1984) Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism , pp. 143-178
    • Hicks1    Swank2
  • 64
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    • Social democracy, labor quiescence, and the representation of economic interest in advanced capitalist society
    • John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press
    • Ibid; Pampel and Williamson, "Welfare Spending"; Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Labor Quiescence, and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in John H. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 143-78.
    • (1984) Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism , pp. 143-178
    • Cameron, D.1
  • 66
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    • Effective number of parties: A measure with application to West Europe
    • Markku Laakso and Rein Taagepera, "Effective Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe," Comparative Political Studies, 12 (1979), 3-27. Relative importance in measured by squaring the percentage share of parties in parliament.
    • (1979) Comparative Political Studies , vol.12 , pp. 3-27
    • Laakso, M.1    Taagepera, R.2
  • 67
    • 0003860184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lijphart, Democracies, p. 100. Strongly bicameral legislatures are found in Australia, Germany, Switzerland, and the United States; weakly bicameral parliaments, in Belgium, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Canada, France, and the United Kingdom. Bicameralism is insignificant in Austria and Ireland, and the legislature is unicameral in Denmark, Finland, New Zealand, Norway, and Sweden.
    • Democracies , pp. 100
    • Lijphart1
  • 69
    • 84908071268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • various editions
    • OECD, Economic Outlook (various editions).
    • Economic Outlook
  • 70
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    • The social democratic model and beyond: Two generations of comparative research on the welfare state
    • See, for example, Michael Shalev, "The Social Democratic Model and Beyond: Two Generations of Comparative Research on the Welfare State," Comparative Social Research, 6 (1983), 315-52; Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Francis G. Castles, "The Impact of Parties on Public Expenditures," in Francis G. Castles, ed., The Impact of Parties (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982), pp. 21-95; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
    • (1983) Comparative Social Research , vol.6 , pp. 315-352
    • Shalev, M.1
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    • London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
    • See, for example, Michael Shalev, "The Social Democratic Model and Beyond: Two Generations of Comparative Research on the Welfare State," Comparative Social Research, 6 (1983), 315-52; Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Francis G. Castles, "The Impact of Parties on Public Expenditures," in Francis G. Castles, ed., The Impact of Parties (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982), pp. 21-95; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
    • (1983) The Democratic Class Struggle
    • Korpi, W.1
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    • The impact of parties on public expenditures
    • Francis G. Castles, ed., Beverly Hills: Sage
    • See, for example, Michael Shalev, "The Social Democratic Model and Beyond: Two Generations of Comparative Research on the Welfare State," Comparative Social Research, 6 (1983), 315-52; Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Francis G. Castles, "The Impact of Parties on Public Expenditures," in Francis G. Castles, ed., The Impact of Parties (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982), pp. 21-95; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
    • (1982) The Impact of Parties , pp. 21-95
    • Castles, F.G.1
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    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • See, for example, Michael Shalev, "The Social Democratic Model and Beyond: Two Generations of Comparative Research on the Welfare State," Comparative Social Research, 6 (1983), 315-52; Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Francis G. Castles, "The Impact of Parties on Public Expenditures," in Francis G. Castles, ed., The Impact of Parties (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982), pp. 21-95; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
    • (1985) Politics Against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power
    • Esping-Andersen, G.1
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    • Munich: Beck Verlag
    • Data are from Manfred Schmidt, Politisches System und Politikfelder - Westliche Industrieländer (Munich: Beck Verlag, 1992). These data represent a five-point scale: 1= bourgeois hegemony, 2=bourgeois dominance, 3=balance, 4=social democratic dominance, 5= social democratic hegemony.
    • (1992) Politisches System und Politikfelder - Westliche Industrieländer
    • Schmidt, M.1
  • 76
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    • Wilensky, p. 27
    • Wilensky, p. 27.
  • 77
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    • various editions
    • The data on the aged are from United Nations, Demographic Yearbook (various editions).
    • Demographic Yearbook
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    • Political institutions and voter turnout in the industrial democracies
    • Robert W. Jackman, "Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987), 405-23; G. Bingham Powell, Jr., "American Voter Turnout in Comparative Perspective," American Political Science Review, 80 (1986), 17-43.
    • (1987) American Political Science Review , vol.81 , pp. 405-423
    • Jackman, R.W.1
  • 79
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    • American voter turnout in comparative perspective
    • Robert W. Jackman, "Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987), 405-23; G. Bingham Powell, Jr., "American Voter Turnout in Comparative Perspective," American Political Science Review, 80 (1986), 17-43.
    • (1986) American Political Science Review , vol.80 , pp. 17-43
    • Powell G.B., Jr.1
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    • Ithaca: Cornell University Press
    • Peter Katzenstein, Small States in World Markets (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985); also, Cameron, "The Expansion"; Stephens.
    • (1985) Small States in World Markets
    • Katzenstein, P.1
  • 82
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    • Stephens
    • Peter Katzenstein, Small States in World Markets (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985); also, Cameron, "The Expansion"; Stephens.
    • The Expansion
    • Cameron1
  • 83
    • 0003515194 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Geneva: ILO, various editions
    • Data on working days lost per one million population are from International Labour Office, Yearbook of Labour Statistics (Geneva: ILO, various editions).
    • Yearbook of Labour Statistics
  • 84
    • 0039937433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; Pampel and Williamson, Age. Data for economic growth, inflation, and unemployment are from OECD, Economic Outlook (various editions).
    • Politics
    • Hicks1    Swank2
  • 85
    • 0039345244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; Pampel and Williamson, Age. Data for economic growth, inflation, and unemployment are from OECD, Economic Outlook (various editions).
    • Age
    • Pampel1    Williamson2
  • 86
    • 84908071268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • various editions
    • Hicks and Swank, "Politics"; Pampel and Williamson, Age. Data for economic growth, inflation, and unemployment are from OECD, Economic Outlook (various editions).
    • Economic Outlook
  • 87
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    • The political business cycle
    • Typical representatives are William D. Nordhaus, "The Political Business Cycle," The Review of Economic Studies, 42 (1975), 169-90; Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Bruno S. Frey, Theorie demokratischer Wirtschaftspolitik (Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen, 1981); Heinz Eulau and Michael Lewis-Beck, Economic Conditions and Electoral Outcomes: The United States and Western Europe (New York: Agathon Press, 1985).
    • (1975) The Review of Economic Studies , vol.42 , pp. 169-190
    • Nordhaus, W.D.1
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    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • Typical representatives are William D. Nordhaus, "The Political Business Cycle," The Review of Economic Studies, 42 (1975), 169-90; Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Bruno S. Frey, Theorie demokratischer Wirtschaftspolitik (Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen, 1981); Heinz Eulau and Michael Lewis-Beck, Economic Conditions and Electoral Outcomes: The United States and Western Europe (New York: Agathon Press, 1985).
    • (1978) Political Control of the Economy
    • Tufte, E.R.1
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    • Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen
    • Typical representatives are William D. Nordhaus, "The Political Business Cycle," The Review of Economic Studies, 42 (1975), 169-90; Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Bruno S. Frey, Theorie demokratischer Wirtschaftspolitik (Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen, 1981); Heinz Eulau and Michael Lewis-Beck, Economic Conditions and Electoral Outcomes: The United States and Western Europe (New York: Agathon Press, 1985).
    • (1981) Theorie Demokratischer Wirtschaftspolitik
    • Frey, B.S.1
  • 90
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    • New York: Agathon Press
    • Typical representatives are William D. Nordhaus, "The Political Business Cycle," The Review of Economic Studies, 42 (1975), 169-90; Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Bruno S. Frey, Theorie demokratischer Wirtschaftspolitik (Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen, 1981); Heinz Eulau and Michael Lewis-Beck, Economic Conditions and Electoral Outcomes: The United States and Western Europe (New York: Agathon Press, 1985).
    • (1985) Economic Conditions and Electoral Outcomes: The United States and Western Europe
    • Eulau, H.1    Lewis-Beck, M.2
  • 91
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    • note
    • This simple dummy variable is coded as 1 in election years and 0 in nonelection years.
  • 92
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    • note
    • The countries are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States.
  • 93
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    • Regression in time and space: A statistical essay
    • James Stimson, "Regression in Time and Space: A Statistical Essay," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (1985), 914-47.
    • (1985) American Journal of Political Science , vol.29 , pp. 914-947
    • Stimson, J.1
  • 95
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    • A heteroskedasticity consistent co-variance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity
    • Harold White, "A Heteroskedasticity Consistent Co-variance Matrix Estimator and a Direct Test for Heteroskedasticity," Econometrica, 48 (1980), 818-38.
    • (1980) Econometrica , vol.48 , pp. 818-838
    • White, H.1
  • 96
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    • Lijphart and Crepaz
    • Lijphart and Crepaz.
  • 97
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    • Huber, Ragin, and Stephens
    • Huber, Ragin, and Stephens.
  • 98
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    • Jackman
    • Jackman.
  • 99
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    • note
    • In simpler models with fewer explanatory variables, left political dominance displayed the predicted sign in a significant manner, increasing welfare expenditures.


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